Bio: (1905–1980) French philosopher, writer, and literary critic. Jean-Paul Sartre got his doctorate in philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure in 1929 and taught in several high schools after that. After World War II Sartre focused on being an author and public intellectual and co-founded the magazine Les temps modernes in 1945. During most of his life, he was in a romantic and intellectual relationship with French philosopher and author Simone de Beauvoir. Although Sartre became famous and well-known for his philosophical essays, he also wrote many novels, stories, plays, screenplays, and autobiographical works, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1964, although he refused to accept it. Sartre is known as a staunch proponent of anti-colonial politics, so he strongly opposed French policy in Algeria as France fought a war to prevent Algeria from becoming an independent country.

      Existentialism and the Human Subject in Social Sciences

Jean-Paul Sartre’s contributions to philosophy were mostly through his development of existentialism and phenomenology. Sartre's influence extends far beyond philosophy as he left an indelible mark on various fields, including social sciences. His radical concepts of human freedom, identity, the role of individual consciousness in shaping society, responsibility, and subjectivity reshaped the way scholars in sociology, psychology, political science, and other social disciplines approached human behavior and social structures.

At the heart of Sartre’s philosophy lies the notion that "existence precedes essence," which he introduced in his essay Being and Nothingness (1943). This statement encapsulates the idea that stands against philosophical essentialism, as it says that individuals are not born with a pre-determined nature or essence; rather, they create their own identity and meaning through their actions and choices. This existential view challenged the deterministic models of human behavior that were prevalent in much of early social science. Where traditional social science frameworks often viewed individuals as products of their environment or as subjects to the forces of social structures, Sartre argued that individuals are fundamentally free and responsible for their own actions.

In sociology, this perspective led to a greater emphasis on the agency of individuals within social structures. Sartre’s insistence on human freedom and subjectivity inspired scholars to consider how individuals navigate, challenge, and transform social systems. Sociologists influenced by Sartre’s work began to focus on how individuals engage in meaningful acts of resistance, personal rebellion, and self-authorship in the face of societal constraints. His ideas helped catalyze the development of more dynamic, human-centered approaches in social theory, such as those seen in symbolic interactionism and phenomenological sociology, which emphasize subjective experiences in the construction of social reality.

                  Role of Consciousness in Social Structures

Sartre’s concept of "bad faith" – a form of self-deception or lying to oneself to avoid responsibility – had significant implications for social psychology and the analysis of social behavior. In Sartre’s view, individuals often conform to societal norms, roles, and expectations as a way of evading the responsibility that comes with absolute freedom. This idea resonated with social psychologists interested in understanding the psychological mechanisms that underlie conformity, socialization, and role acceptance.

Sartre’s theory of consciousness, which he explored in his work Being and Nothingness, posits that human consciousness is always directed toward something – it is intentional. This intentionality of consciousness had a profound impact on psychological theories of perception, action, and motivation. Sartre’s ideas were particularly influential on the development of social psychology as they prompted a shift from purely structural explanations of behavior to more individualized, existential understandings. His work encouraged scholars to examine how individuals’ subjective experiences of the world, and their awareness of themselves as free agents, influence their interactions with others and their social behavior.

                            Sartre and Political Thought

Sartre’s existentialism also had a significant impact on political theory and social movements. As a committed Marxist and outspoken advocate for social justice, Sartre believed that individuals were not merely passive observers of society but active participants in the process of social change. His political philosophy emphasized the responsibility of individuals to confront social inequalities and engage in collective action to create a more just world. His famous essay "Existentialism is a Humanism" argued that individuals are responsible not only for their own lives but for the collective well-being of humanity. Sartre's views helped shape the rise of radical political movements, particularly in the mid-20th century, as they called for the liberation of oppressed groups through collective struggle. His engagement with anti-colonial movements, especially his support for the Algerian struggle for independence from France, inspired scholars in political science to think about how power, oppression, and resistance are mediated through individual actions and collective agency.

In Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960), Sartre explored the problem of agency in history and developed existential Marxism. His existentialist-Marxist synthesis invited social scientists to examine the intersection of individual freedom and collective structures, adding depth to debates about social change, revolution, and liberation.

        Sartre's Legacy in Feminist Theory and Queer Studies

Sartre’s ideas on freedom, agency, and the socially constructed nature of identity also influenced feminist theory and queer studies. Feminist scholars drew on Sartre’s ideas of self-definition and existential freedom to critique traditional gender roles and how women have historically been denied agency. Simone de Beauvoir expanded upon Sartre’s ideas in her groundbreaking work The Second Sex.

Sartre’s notion of identity as an ongoing, subjective project resonated strongly within the field of queer theory. By emphasizing the performative nature of identity and the role of conscious decision-making in the formation of one’s sense of self, Sartre’s work laid the groundwork for the later development of queer theory, which challenges fixed categories of gender and sexuality and instead advocates for fluidity, transformation, and self-determined identity.

Main works

Transcendence and the Ego (1936);

Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions (1939);

The Imaginary (1940);

Being and Nothingness (1943);

No Exit (1944);

Existentialism and Humanism (1946);

Anti-Semite and Jew (1946);

Situations, 10 vols. (1947-1976);

Search for a Method (1957);

Critique of Dialectical Reason, 2 vols. (1960, 1985);

The Family Idiot, 3 vols. (1972).