Philosophical existentialism refers to a weakly connected philosophical movement that stands in opposition to both rationalism and empiricism. Existentialism states that both strains of philosophy don’t explore the unique character of human life is that people are thrown into “existence” without any pre-given meaning or significance. Human existence also doesn’t fit into the system of objective concepts. Some of the most notable existential philosophers are Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, José Ortega y Gasset, Albert Camus, Karl Jaspers, Martin Buber, Gabriel Marcel, Nicholai Berdyaev, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Lev Shestov.

French philosopher, writer, and feminist Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) together with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre created the philosophy of existentialism. They shared leftist views of the world. In Beauvoir's most famous book, The Second Sex (2021, in French 1949), she presented key ideas that would make her the bellwether of the second wave of feminism. In this book, the author presents the idea that "one is not born a woman, but becomes one", that is, that women grow up in a world that gives men an active role, restrains a woman, and forces them to accept a subordinate role. In this sense, the role of women is a social and cultural construct. Dominant culture defines a woman as "Other" - something that is different from the standard that is the men. Simone de Beauvoir advocated the rejection of imposed gender roles and a change in the way the sexes treat each other - overcoming the roles of domination and subordination. Roles that are imposed on the sexes always contain the aspect of acting and performance in themselves.

Religion also serves men to subdue women. Men control and shape religious beliefs, in order to use divine authority to justify their dominance. On the other hand, religion gives women compensation for their subordinate position. In modern society, religion serves as a means of deception, to make women believe that they are equal to men. Women were once portrayed in religion as closer to God, but for religions, their role as mothers is paramount. Women should be passive and thus closer to God. Religion also offers women a reward in the next life, for all the suffering they go through in this life. Religion is hostile to any attempt to emancipate women, while, on the other hand, women play a key role to play in maintaining religion, as they are mostly responsible for educating children in a religious spirit. de Beauvoir studied the position of women through themes of menstruation, frigidity, pregnancy, and menopause, but also through the ideals of beauty and the aging process. She also explored feelings of love and desire.

Spanish philosopher and sociologist José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955)  studied history, politics, and relations between the masses and the elites, and he researched these topics in the books Invertebrate Spain (1921) and The Revolt of the Masses (1932, in Spanish 1930). At the core of his understanding of the relationship between history and politics is the belief that the division of society into elite and mass is present in every society, and that the dialectical relationship of these two groups has a key impact on political events and historical development. Ortega y Gasset defines members of the elite, not in the context of the political or economic power they have, but according to individual qualities. Members of the elite, that is, selected and excellent people, have a desire for "authenticity", a desire to achieve a higher ideal of living based on the moral principle.

In every society, there is a prominent minority, which makes up the elite, and a majority of the society which makes up the mass. The elite has an innate predisposition to lead society, while the representatives of the masses have an innate predisposition to be led. In the period when the masses refused to be led by the elite, the state, and society disintegrates. In Invertebrate Spain, Ortega y Gasset concluded that this was exactly what was happening in Spain at that time. The disintegration of society can also occur when the ruling classes degenerate, that is, they lose their vitality and turn into a mass. He believes that different human races have different proportions of selected and excellent people, so races that have relatively more "elite" people are superior to other races. Similar relations exist between different peoples of one race.

Ortega y Gasset believes that the entire history is characterized by two types of epochs - epochs in which there is a rise and domination of the elite and a period of decline of these elites and the parallel rise and rebellion of the masses against the elite. The changes of these two epochs form historical cycles. The modern rise of the masses began in the 19th century and is connected with several factors: demographic population growth; increasing social wealth; increasing material security and living standards of all classes; the rise of cities; and the expansion of education. However, the two most important factors are the development and spread of liberal democracy and the rise of technology, understood as the application of scientific methods in industrialization.

He also believed that equalizing the quality of life and life chances between different classes, genders, and countries, leads to the rise of the masses. Political liberalism, in particular, leads to the politicization of the masses and the creation of a dangerous system of "hyperdemocracy" in which the masses are beginning to dominate politics. This kind of hyperdemocracy has led to the rise of systems that are even worse than liberalism - fascism, trade unionism, and Bolshevism. In these systems, the barbarism of the masses and the incompetence of their leaders is most pronounced. The rise of the masses leads to an increase in violence in society, in various forms, from revolutions to direct actions of anarchists, because violence is the only doctrine that the masses have. As a reaction to that violence, the states are carrying out bureaucratization and militarization of life, which is best seen in the huge increase in police forces in all states.

Authors: Beauvoir, Simone de; Ortega y Gasset José. Abbagnano, Nicola; Berdyaev, Nikolai; Buber, Martin; Camus, Albert; Heidegger, Martin; Jaspers, Karl; Kierkegaard, Soren; Marcel, Gabriel; Merleau-Ponty, Maurice; Shestov, Lev; Nietzsche, Friedrich; Sartre, Jean-Paul.

Books:

Beauvoir. A Very Easy Death (1986, in French 1965);

     -     Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter (2005, in French 1958);

     -     The Ethics of Ambiguity (2018, in French 1947);

     -     The Second Sex (2021, in French 1949);

     -     The Inseparables (2021, in French 2021).   

Kierkegaard, Søren. Fear and Trembling: Repetition (1983, in Danish 1843).

Merleau-Ponty, M. Phenomenology of Perception (1962); 

Ortega y Gasset. Meditations on Quixote (1963, in Spanish 1914);

     -     Invertebrate Spain (1974, in Spanish 1921);

     -     The Modern Theme (1961, in Spanish 1923);

     -     The Dehumanization of Art and Other Essays on Art, Culture, and Literature (2019, in Spanish 1925);

     -     What is Philosophy (1964, in Spanish 1928);

     -     The Revolt of the Masses (1994, in Spanish 1929);

     -     Meditations on Hunting (2007);

     -     On Love: Aspects of a Single Theme (2012); 

     -     Mission of the University (2014);

     -     The Modern Theme (2017);

Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit. In No Exit, and Three Other Plays (1989, in French 1944);

     -     Jean-Paul Sartre: Basic Writings (2001).