Colonialism refers to the political subjection, economic exploitation, and cultural domination over some territory and people physically and geographically distant from the state that exerts that oppression. The term colonialism comes from the Latin word colonia, which refers to the settlement of people from one society to some distant territory. Some famous examples of colonies in ancient times are the Greek colony of Syracuse in today’s Sicily and the Phoenician colony of Carthage in present-day Tunisia. Modern usage of the terms colonization and colonialism refers to the process that lasted from the end of the 15th century when Spain and Portugal started creating colonies in the Americas and Western Africa, up to the late 20th century when the last of the European colonies either gain independence or become part of neighboring countries. Over time colonization became a geopolitical, racial, and hegemonic project of worldwide domination by Western European countries and the USA. All of the Americas and Oceania, almost all of Africa (except Ethiopia), and the vast majority of Asia have at some point in time been a colony of some European state or USA. Related topics of imperialism and postcolonialism are subjects of entries Empire and Postcolonialism, respectively.   

Colonialism is a complicated process for several reasons. First is that apart from formal colonization by a state, there have been other actors who were colonizers – charted private companies like East Dutch India Company, British East India Company, Hudson Bay Company, etc; enterprising individuals (pirates, military leaders, capitalists) who colonized territories and societies without consent from their country of origin; and small settler societies who wanted to escape the political control of their countries (e. g. pilgrims from the Mayflower). The second factor is huge population changes – in some regions, most of the domicile population suffered genocide from war, famine, and diseases (like in the Americas where it is estimated that 90% of native people died), while, on the other hand, a great number of people were willingly on forcefully brought to colonies as slaves (from Africa to Americas), colonist, indenture servants (primarily from Ireland and the Indian subcontinent), or as soldiers. All this resulted in major genetic and ethnic changes in many colonies, especially in North America, the Caribbean, Brazil, Australia, and Argentina. The third factor that influenced the process of colonization was how subjugated people reacted to oppression. In a lot of places, there were various forms of resistance – escapes, revolts, rebellions, and wars of independence.  

Forth factor is the motivation that drove colonization. Economic motives range from direct plunder of gold and silver, acquiring cheap raw materials, establishing trade routes, growing cash crops, to collecting taxes. Political motivation ranged from growing political power through the subjugation of people and territories to building a transcontinental empire. Ideological justifications were: Christianization of populations, racist theory of the duty of racially advanced Europeans to control and bring “progress” to racially lesser races by ruling over them, and liberal ideology that claimed that colonization would bring modernization, economic and infrastructural development, human rights, and democracy. The combination of these four and other factors was different for each colony, as were the consequences.  

                            Marxist Criticism of Colonialism

Marx and Engels argued that colonialism enhanced the ‘‘primitive accumulation’’ of capital and helped the spread of capitalist social relations around the globe. John Hobson, in his famous study Imperialism (1902), applied his economic theory to explain the Boer War in South Africa, as well as the whole system of imperialism. The Boer War came about because international mine owners and speculators who had investments in South Africa pushed Britain into the war to secure those investments. He believed that imperial wars were justified to the masses, in the countries of the center, by the fact that governments, through the daily press, indulged the worst instincts of the large urban masses and thus spread militarism. Imperialism is a consequence of the problem of declining demand, on the one hand, and the need for capitalists to increase profits, on the other. The imperial wars provided an opportunity to acquire new markets for the placement of goods, and also to create markets for new investments. The imperial wars themselves were not profitable for the states that waged them, but only for the capitalists and financiers for two reasons: increasing profits and pacifying the working class. The impact of the wars on the pacification of the working class was twofold. By spreading nationalism and militarism, the capitalists diverted the attention of the working class from its catastrophic position, while, on the other hand, by gaining new markets, they solved the problem of reducing demand without making economic concessions to the working class. In the end, imperialism led to the First World War. Hobson believed that the introduction of a political system that would bring all the countries of the world together could prevent imperialism and new wars.

Vladimir Lenin later applied a similar logic in his study of imperialism, so this approach to imperialism was sometimes called "Hobson-Lenin's theory of imperialism".  In The book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) Lenin analyzes the relationship between capitalism and imperialism. Western capitalism postponed the anti-capitalist revolution by starting the exploitation of colonies and semi-colonies. The imperialist expansion of the world's largest powers, at the end of the nineteenth century, resulted from the development of monopoly capitalism, in which the economies of rich countries were increasingly concentrated in a relatively small number of large firms, while at the same time the merger of industrial capital with large banks, as well as the growing integration of interests between private companies and the state, took place. Such development of capitalism leads to a competition of capital to conquer new markets. "The more capitalism develops, the more there is a shortage of raw materials and a fiercer competition and race for raw materials around the world leads to an increasingly desperate struggle to conquer new colonies." (Lenin, 1916). The newly formed financial capital increases the already existing rivalries between the capitalists of different countries, and therefore also between the countries themselves. The rivalries and wars between the great powers were the product of the very dynamic of capitalist development, especially the new stage in the development of capitalism dominated by financial capital and the monopolization of the economy. This is precisely why Lenin defined imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. Lenin believed that it was necessary to form an international anti-imperialist alliance that would fight both against capitalism and against imperialism. The end of imperial rivalries can only come about through a radical reorganization of the economic system of the entire planet, whereby capitalism would be replaced by socialism. The fall of capitalism has become necessary to ensure the survival of the human species.

Rosa Luxemburg, In The Accumulation of Capital: A Contribution to the Economic Explanation of Imperialism (1913), presents her theory of the causes and the rise of imperialism. Luxemburg examines various socio-economic systems with communal ownership of the property that existed in pre-capitalist societies, all across the world – ancient Germany, the Inca Empire, Africa, Russia, and India. She admired the fact that those systems were marked by egalitarianism, longevity, and flexibility. The rise of modern capitalism in the West was intrinsically tied to and spearheaded by imperialistic subjection and exploitation of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Western imperialism destroyed those communal economic systems and caused immense social and economic devastation, hunger, and deaths. She argued that the inherent tendencies of capitalism for limitless production and capital accumulation and the need for new markets inevitably lead to imperialism. Luxemburg was extremely critical of war and militarism and saw them as outgrowths of capitalism and imperialism.

                             Anthropology and Colonialism

Until the middle of the second half of the 20th century, a great deal of anthropological fieldwork was done in colonies. Talal Asad edited the book Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter (1974), which accuses anthropology as a discipline of having a collaborative role in the administration of the colonies and complicity in spreading the culture of imperialism. French anthropologist Georges Balandier developed the Anthropology of colonialism as a theoretical and research approach. In 1958 Balandier founded the Centre d’études africaines (Centre for African Studies), where he and his students studied the effects of Westernization and colonial rule on African countries, societies, and people.

In Europe and People Without History (1982), Eric Wolf shows how a unique combination of historical and geographical circumstances led to the liberal political revolution, the industrial revolution, and the development of the free market in England at the same time, all of which were necessary preconditions for the emergence of capitalism. England, and later Great Britain, contributed to the division of the world into zones of interest of European powers through its colonial expansion. All societies that anthropologists view as ahistorical, due to the spread of capitalism through colonial imperialism, form part of global capitalism. Both European colonial societies and "societies without history" are, in fact, interconnected and equally dynamic. Processes that took place at the local level played a major role in the events in the wider world system.

In his books The Third World (1964) and The Three Worlds: Culture and World Development (1984), Peter Worsley studied the economic, political, and cultural influence that colonialism and imperialism had on the former colonial states. His theoretical approach relied on Marxist theories. He is the most famous advocate of the division of all countries into "three worlds". The first world consisted of developed capitalist states, the second world consisted of communist or socialist one-party states, while the third world was a set of states (and those territories that still had the status of colonies) that were economically underdeveloped but did not have communist or socialist regimes. 

Colonialism in Theoretical Perspectives of the Dependency Theory and World Systems Theory

The dependency theory approach emerged out of Latin America in the 1960s, as an intellectual and political reaction to Eurocentric modernization theories of development. It is focused on international economic and political relations. The Dependency theory states that unequal economic exchange between developed and underdeveloped countries puts later in a constant state of dependency. The most notable proponents of dependency theory are Samir Amin, Paul Baran, Fernando Cardoso, Andre Gunder Frank, Raul Prebisch, Theotônio dos Santos, Paul Sweezy, and Guillermo O'Donnell. Paul Baran, examines, in The Political Economy of Growth (1957), the colonial relations between Great Britain and India and shows that the domestic industry in India was destroyed so that India would become just a territory from which Britain would procure cheap resources. 

Classical Marxist theory viewed Latin America as a semi-feudal society, while modernization theories explained the region's economic backwardness as incomplete modernization and an underdeveloped capitalist economy. Andre Gunder Frank rejects both interpretations. Although he accepts the Marxist view of economics and classes, Frank thinks that to explain the situation in Latin America, it is necessary to apply Marxist theory differently. He believed that since the beginning of European colonization, Latin America had been exploited by the greatest colonial powers. The essence of the underdevelopment of this region was external political, economic, and cultural influences on national development policies. After gaining independence, Latin American countries continued to be subject to colonial economic logic - they continued to export a small number of unprocessed raw materials, which did not yield large profits. The dynamics of the relationship between the center and the periphery, after gaining independence, were maintained through the local lumpen bourgeoisie, which, in addition to economic, also achieved political domination.

In Essays on the Political Economy of Africa (1973) Giovanni Arrighi developed the theory that labor supply and workers' resistance influenced colonialism and national liberation movements in Africa. Colonial capitalists could not force Africans to work as wage earners on plantations, in mines, or as market producers, as long as the domicile population owned the means of production, which allowed them to produce for their own needs. The colonizers, therefore, took away the land from the African population, forcibly forced it to work, and forced it to pay taxes in colonial currency. In Geometry of Imperialism (1978), Arrighi states that imperialism, which is a war between capitalist countries, is a necessary consequence of the transformation of classical capitalism into monopoly and financial capitalism. In The Long Twentieth Century (1994), Arrighi deals with the history of international capitalism from the 14th century to the present day. He believes that financial capital has been a central component of the world system all that time. Current cash flows have the typical characteristics of very long "systemic cycles of accumulation".

Immanuel Wallerstein developed his approach to international relations known as the World systems theory. He began studying the history of economic and political relations between colonial powers and their colonies in the early 1970s, and the results of this research are presented in The Modern World-System, vol. I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (1974). In his theory, one type of world system is the "world-economies", which consists of a large number of politically independent units that are all economically integrated through trade and division of labor. All the products necessary for the survival of the world-economy are produced within it, but since different political units of the world-economy produce different products, which is the basis of the division of labor, it is necessary to redistribute these products through trade. World economies in the past were short-lived, as they were usually disintegrated or integrated into world-empires. The current world-economy, which has survived to this day, emerged at the end of the Middle Ages in Europe. At that time, a complex trade network of agricultural products was created, and the most important role in that trade was played by trade cities, among them those in the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic League were especially important. The world-economy, which existed in Europe at that time, was surrounded by world empires, which gradually, as they lost power, became integrated into the world-economy. The centers of development of the world-economy in the modern era were England, the Netherlands, and France. The development that took place in these countries created the basis for capitalist industrialization. By the end of the nineteenth century, this world economy, through colonialism and imperialism, had spread to the entire planet, and the engine of its expansion was the constant need for the accumulation of capital.

The world-economy is characterized by three different sectors, which Wallerstein calls the periphery, the semi-periphery, and the center. Each of these sectors contains several different states. The center consists of the most technologically developed and richest countries, which appropriate the greatest benefit from the way the whole system is organized. The countries of the center shape the world system itself and the patterns of investment and trade. There is always a struggle between the states of the center for power and the accumulation of capital. The states and colonies located on the periphery are exploited, through trade relations, by the countries of the center, and this exchange produces the subordination of the states of the periphery. Both development and underdevelopment are interdependent processes because the development of the countries of the center necessarily depends on the underdevelopment of the countries on the periphery.

The states of the semi-periphery, by their characteristics and position, are located between the center and the periphery and may include former countries of the center, whose position has declined or countries originating from the periphery, but whose position has improved, so they moved to the semi-periphery. While the countries of the center often advocate a free world market, the countries of the semi-periphery prefer the tactics of protectionism. Belonging to a sector affects many characteristics of a certain state or territorial unit: average life expectancy, living standard, position and control over the labor force, type of products intended for foreign trade, type of political regime, etc. The position of the labor force and the control over it, are directly related to the type of production intended for foreign trade. The periphery produces and trades mainly with raw materials, and the labor force is poorly paid and subject to great control (whether the labor force has a formal-legal position of slaves, serfs, or free workers, it does not change its essentially extremely bad position of workers in the periphery), while the countries of the center produce and export finished products, and the wages of the labor force are higher, while the control over it is less strict.

The growth of capitalism depends on the potential to constantly increase the accumulation of capital, and such accumulation necessarily depends on the possibility of incorporating new territories into the world-system. It is this fact that led to the creation of the world-economy. Capitalism also tends to subjugate the policies of all states to its own interests, so most capitalist profits come through quasi-monopolies guaranteed by states. The world-economy is dynamic, and long-term economic cycles (of which the Kondratieff's cycle is the most important), geopolitical relations, as well as internal economic dynamics, are the most important factors influencing the decline or progress of a country from one sector to another. The dynamics of the world system are also influenced by the resistance of the periphery and semi-periphery, anti-systemic movements (anti-colonial, socialist, for minority rights, etc.), class relations, but also race and gender relations.

          Anti-colonialism from the Perspective of the Oppressed

In her works, Indian-American literary critic and gender theorist Gayatri Spivak, strives to break the hegemonic practice by which Western thought justified and rationalized European colonization, exploitation, and domination. She also criticizes how Western feminists portrayed the position of women in "third world" countries. Spivak deconstructed nineteenth-century English literature and showed that this literature justified colonial rule by claiming that England was the bearer of civilization and progress. Spivak used her own experience to provide a new perspective on issues of colonialism and racism, gender and sexuality, capitalism and class relations, culture and religion.

In his book Black Skin, White Masks (1952), Frantz Fanon presents the consequences of French colonialization on the African population in Martinique. He introduced the concept of the colonialism of the mind, which refers to the pedagogical, linguistic, institutional, and cognitive domination of the colonizer over the colonized.  His approach contains an existentialist, psychological, and socio-economic analysis of colonial relations. Socio-economic inequalities and racist teachings about the backwardness of African culture have led to the development of psychological complexes of internalization of inferiority among the black population of Martinique, but also to their need to "whitewash". Having been taught that black skin color indicates backwardness and that the Creole version of the French language is shameful, the African population of Martinique tended to wear "white masks". They suffered from insecurity, self-blame, and despair. To escape from such a psychological state, Africans aspired to adopt the French language and culture and to marry "white" women, in order to achieve a sense of self-worth. Colonization not only shaped individual and collective identities of the colonized but also their strategies of resistance. In his book The Wretched of the Earth  (1961), Fanon presents a theory of liberation based on violent actions. Since colonization was introduced and carried out by force, liberation from the colonial chains can be achieved only by force. This tactic is also strategically effective, and at the same time provides a psychological sense of power. Instead of inferiority, despair, and passivity, the oppressed become fearless, and their self-esteem returns. Freeing the mind from feelings of oppression leads to liberation from colonial rule. Only the poorest, those who have nothing to lose (wretched in the world) are the force that will achieve liberation.  In the book The Black Jacobins (1938), James studies the revolt of African slaves on the island of Santa Domingo, which was a French colony, and the product of that revolt was the creation of the independent state of Haiti in 1803. He describes the political strength of different races, the relations between them, the circumstances that caused the rebellion, as well as the consequences of the revolution. He believes that the success of the uprising and the gaining of Haiti's independence had a great impact on the French and British empires, but also on the United States. James also studied popular culture, so in his book, Beyond the Boundary (1963) he explored how cricket and calypso music influenced the creation and development of social institutions and ideologies in the Caribbean. He was a great advocate of anti-colonialism and the independence movements of the Caribbean states, and he hoped that they would unite into the West Indies Federation after gaining independence. He aspired to achieve a society based on socialist values, but also the community values ​​of African societies.

In his book Orientalism (1978), Said uses the theories of Gramsci and Foucault to explore the way the Orient was portrayed in Western culture, from ancient to modern times. He studies the depictions of the Orient given by travel writers, colonial administrators, military leaders, writers, artists, and others. He argues that those depictions reified and essentialized the Orient in order for the West to dominate it. Said sees the creation of knowledge and stereotypical images of the Orient in the West as a discourse in Foucault's sense. Representations of the Orient by Westerners are discursive practices that fixate on the meaning of the objects through which knowledge and truth are arrived at. Fixing the meaning of the Orient has four main consequences. The first is to create an image of the eternal, static, and homogeneous Orient. The second is to portray the Orient as the "Other", which is essentially opposed to the West, and the main opposition is that the Orient tends to create Eastern despotisms, while the West is prone to democracy. The Orient is presented as something that is a constant danger to the West and its values. The third consequence is the creation of limitations in what can be said, thought, and done about the Orient. In this way, Orientalism creates intellectual and cultural means for the colonization of the Orient by the West. Orientalism directly influenced the political attitude of the West towards the Orient. In the end, the last consequence is that Orientalism prevents the productive exchange and interrelations of the West and the East. Said believes that the earlier discourse of Orientalism must be overcome by emphasizing the universal human values ​​of all cultures, but also by respecting and understanding cultural differences, both between the West and the Orient, and differences within the Orient itself.

Paolo Freire revolutionized the field of education, using his theoretical and practical approach of critical pedagogy. His most famous book is Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970) where he elaborated his approach. His goal was to create politically engaged pedagogy against the prevailing “culture of silence”, which refers to the conditions of life and work of the poor and illiterate Brazilian working class. The goal of critical pedagogy was to empower marginalized and oppressed communities through education. He believed that education should not be a tool of domination but rather a means of liberation. According to Freire, traditional education systems, which he called the “banking approach” to education, were designed to maintain the status quo, reproduce existing power structures, and maintain the oppression of the marginalized. He called for a radical reimagining of education that would challenge these power structures and allow for the liberation of the oppressed. Freire's most famous concept is that of "conscientization." This term refers to the process by which individuals become aware of their own oppression and develop the critical consciousness necessary to challenge it. He argued that the education system should focus on developing critical consciousness, rather than simply imparting knowledge. He called this model ”dialogic learning” and it involved creating a dialogue between students and teachers, where both parties learn from each other and engage in critical reflection on their experiences.

                                      Internal Colonialism

Robert Blauner, in the article “Internal Colonialism and Ghetto Revolt” (1969) and in the book Racial Oppression in America (1972) introduced his concept of ‘‘internal colonialism’’. Internal colonialism refers to the difference in experiences of white immigrants and immigrants of African-American and Hispanic descent in the United States. Internal colonialism creates different but interconnected relations of oppression: political disenfranchisement and domination, economic exploitation, occupational and spatial segregation and isolation, discrimination and misrepresentation in media and wider culture.

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