Socialism

Category: Fields of research

What is Socialism?

Socialism is both an ideology and a political and economic system. Both proponents and opponents use the term socialism to describe a wide spectrum of political ideas. Some opponents of socialism, especially in the US, see any state intervention in the economy and any social policy directed at alleviating poverty or providing some “safety net“, as socialism. On the other hand, some proponents of socialism see any private ownership over the “means of production“ (see Marx, Karl) as antithetical to socialist values. In addition to these discrepancies in defining socialism, there are also three ideologies closely connected to socialism: communism, social democracy, and democratic socialism. For the purposes of clarity in this entry, we will provide tentative definitions of all four concepts. We will use the term social democracy to refer to an ideology that wants to implement a welfare state coupled with a multi-party democratic system. In this sense, social democracy wants to reform capitalism and reduce its most negative consequences, not to abolish it. Communism, on the other hand, is an ideology that seeks to abolish all forms of private ownership, not only over the means of production, but also of any property (land, apartments and houses, cars, etc.), and to abolish the market as a means of redistribution of goods and services. Initial socialism propagated by figures such as Marx, Engels, and Lenin rejected liberal democracy and human rights, while democratic socialism seeks to implement economic goals of socialism within a democratic multi-party parliamentary political system that upholds human rights.

What unites all four aforementioned ideologies is the promotion of common values: equality, solidarity, social justice, and gender equality.

Various strands of socialism differ in several ways: how they envision the best economic system, what political system they support, and the best way to achieve those goals. Some socialists promote unbridled industrialization, while others promote ecological sustainability or even returning to a preindustrial mode of production. Certain socialists support hierarchical authoritarian one-party rule, while others seek an anarcho-socialist or direct democratic political system of decision-making. The USSR and some other socialist states promoted nationalism and patriotism, while others promote pacifism and cosmopolitanism. Even when the goal is total abolishment of the private ownership of the means of production is the common goal, there is differences in oppinions in the role of the state in the economy. While some promote communal ownership, workers' cooperatives, or some other forms of non-state form of ownership of the means of production and limited state influence, others advocate for state ownership of all means of production and for state central planning of the economy. Certain socialists promote sudden transformation via revolutionary takeover of the state and the economy; others adopt an evolutionary path via gradual reforms of political and economic areas.

History of Socialism

The term "socialist" comes from the Latin verb sociare, which means to join, to associate. The earliest known use of this term was recorded in 1827 in Great Britain in one issue of the Co-operative Magazine. Some socialists lay claim to an intellectual legacy that goes back to Plato's Republic, Thomas More’s Utopia (1516) or The City of the Sun (1623) by Tommaso Campanella. More’s title Utopia combines the Greek meanings of “good place” and “no place,” reflecting the tension between idealism and impossibility. Inspired by both Plato and Christian millenarian beliefs, More adopted from Plato the idea of designing a perfectly organized society, while Christianity contributed a sense of historical transformation and hope tied to the expectation of Christ’s second coming and the creation of a new social order. In More’s Utopia, economic equality is a central value, though social equality is absent.

The proliferation of socialist ideas was brought about by two revolutions. The first is the French bourgeois revolution from 1789, which paved the way for political views that rather, they focus on the interests of the wider social community, rather than on the interests of the king and the church. This kind of secularization of society made it possible for citizens to become the basis of state sovereignty. The second great revolution that paved the way for social democracy was the Industrial Revolution that began in Great Britain at the beginning of the 19th century, from where it gradually spread towards Western Europe. Its result was a large increase in the number of workers in the population. Socialism arose as a reaction to social and economic conditions produced in Europe by the growth of industrialization of capitalism. Socialist ideas soon began to spread in relation to the development of a new but growing class of industrial workers who were poor and humiliated. Laissez-faire policy economy of the early 19th century was left to the factory owners firm hands in determining salary levels and working conditions. Low wages were common, child labor was widespread, the working day often lasted 14 hours, and the threat of unemployment u was always present. Therefore, early socialists often were looking for a radical, even revolutionary alternative to capitalism.

The early nineteenth century saw the emergence of socialist ideas through the work of Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and Robert Owen, who are commonly described as “utopian socialists.” They were all influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), who believed that human beings are naturally social and inclined toward goodness. He argued that humanity could regain this natural state through a process of moral and social purification. Rousseau also maintained that the emergence of private property marked the beginning of humanity’s decline from its original condition. Although Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen shared important principles, such as opposition to individualism and competition, support for cooperation, and faith in the possibility of a scientific understanding of society, their approaches differed significantly.

Robert Owen believed that human character was not fixed but shaped by social and material circumstances. This led him to support efforts to create better social environments in which people could develop cooperatively.

Charles Fourier strongly criticized industrialization and liberal democracy, arguing that they did not represent genuine historical progress. He believed bourgeois society had moved away from the natural foundations of human social life. Instead of industrial capitalism, Fourier proposed small, self-sufficient agricultural communities called phalanstères. These communities were intended to provide maximum individual freedom with minimal public regulation. Fourier also promoted complete gender equality and called for the abolition of marriage as a social institution, which he regarded as a source of inequality.

Saint-Simon, in contrast, did not reject industrialization. He viewed industry and productivity as essential to social progress but believed that workers should gain greater economic and political power. He regarded socialism primarily as an economic doctrine. Since both workers and entrepreneurs benefited from increased productivity, Saint-Simon believed they could cooperate in a collective economic system. He argued that private property was incompatible with an efficient industrial society and proposed transferring property to the state, which would be managed by an association representing workers. A centralized banking system would coordinate economic activity. Saint-Simon also supported women’s emancipation and assistance for poor people and criminals, whom he viewed as victims of an immoral capitalist society. These reforms, he believed, would contribute to the moral regeneration of society.

Early socialism was not limited to theoretical ideas. It also inspired working-class organizations, cooperatives, trade unions, Chartism, and attempts to revive communal forms of social life. Various experimental socialist communities were established, including Étienne Cabet’s Icaria, Fourier’s Brook Farm, William Lane’s New Australia, and Owen’s New Harmony. Their experiences varied: some attracted many followers and survived for years, while others faced serious difficulties or collapsed quickly. Together, these experiments demonstrated both the appeal and the practical challenges of early socialist visions.

After the period of “utopian socialism”, German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels developed what they called scientific socialism, which proclaimed to have discovered the "laws of history". Marx wanted to transform the capitalist society into the communist one, and believed that this change would not be due to the emergence of new productive forces but would be a consequence of the internal contradictions of the capitalist system.

Marx’s vision of socialism and communism was based on the goal of creating a society characterized by equality, collective ownership, and individual freedom. He proposed abolishing private ownership of the means of production, including land, factories, machinery, and tools, and replacing it with collective ownership. In such a society, Marx believed that genuine democracy could eventually lead to the “withering away” of the state, allowing individuals to achieve full social and spiritual development.

Marx later developed his ideas by distinguishing between two stages in the transition from capitalism to communism. The first, or lower stage, was referred to as socialism or the “dictatorship of the proletariat.” During this transitional period, major social and economic reforms would take place. Private property would be abolished, industries would be placed under state control, inheritance would disappear, and universal suffrage and democratic political institutions would be introduced. Education would also become accessible to everyone, while political representatives would be chosen from the working population.

However, Marx recognized that this first stage would still retain some features of capitalism. Economic inequality would continue, because workers would receive compensation according to the amount of labor they contributed. Marx considered this inequality temporary, as society would still be influenced by the conditions inherited from capitalism.

The second, higher stage would be communism, which Marx described as the “realm of freedom.” At this stage, the remaining elements of capitalism and class divisions would disappear. Work would become a voluntary and creative activity rather than an obligation, while workers would directly control the production process. Distribution would follow the principle of “to each according to his need”, rather than according to individual productive contribution. As social and economic development progressed, the state would eventually become unnecessary and gradually disappear. In addition, communism will cease to alienate people from themselves, society, and the products of their labor. The communist organization of the material base will not contain contradictions and internal conflicts. In this way, communism represents the end of the dialectical struggle of classes and the "end of history", because there will no longer be contradictions that create historical change.

Engels, in The Principles of Communism (1847), asks the 25 most important questions about communism and then gives answers to them. In his opinion, communism is an ideology focused on the conditions for the liberation of the proletariat. The proletariat is a class made up of individuals whose survival depends entirely on their ability to sell their own labor to capitalists. The proletariat did not always exist but appeared with the Industrial Revolution in the second half of the eighteenth century. The development of capitalist competition and the race for profit, the rise of industrial machines, and the associated division of labor have led to a state in which workers have lost all of the already small autonomy they previously had. Many strata are falling into the proletariat - manufacturing workers, agricultural workers, petty bourgeois, craftsmen, etc. The whole society is divided into two great classes - the proletarians who own only their labor and the great capitalists who own almost all the means of production. The capitalists pay for the work of the proletariat only as much as is sufficient to achieve the minimum of the physical survival of the proletariat. Engels analyzes the key consequences of the development of industrial capitalism. The industrialization and development of international capitalism have led to the fact that the entire planet is connected economically, so the events in the most developed countries have great consequences for all other countries.

The industrial capitalists managed to become the dominant class in the most developed countries, replacing the aristocracy and large landowners at the top. The capitalists secured their power by introducing parliamentary democracy (in which they control parliament), legal equality, and free market principles. The proletarian revolution cannot happen in only one developed capitalist country but must happen in all of them at the same time. As the main instruments by which communism will be realized, Engels singles out: the restriction of private property through high taxes and the prohibition of inheritance; gradual expropriation of private capital; abolition of private banks and centralization of control over money and credit; free education for all children, etc.

The unifying character of socialism, but also the growing need for association, led them to surpass the national-level political parties and trade union organizations, which led to the founding of the International Workers' Association in London in 1864, better known as the First International. That was the first large international political organization. It was disbanded in 1876. A decade later, in Paris in 1889, it was founded as the International Association of Socialist Parties, better known as the Second International, which gathered political women's parties and labor organizations from 18 countries throughout Europe.

Eduard Bernstein, who was a member of the German Social Democratic Party, in his 1899 book Evolutionary Socialism, challenged the revolutionary approach associated with traditional Marxism. As the leading advocate of revisionism, Bernstein argued that economic and political developments had disproved several key assumptions of Marxist theory. He observed that property ownership was becoming more widely distributed through the growth of joint-stock companies, while state social insurance was improving workers’ living conditions and reducing economic insecurity. At the same time, organized labor was gaining greater influence through parliamentary politics.

Based on these developments, Bernstein argued that socialism no longer required a violent revolution. Instead, it could be achieved gradually through democratic and parliamentary reforms that improved workers’ lives in the present. He noted that living standards were generally improving, class divisions were not becoming increasingly polarized, and capital ownership was becoming more diversified rather than concentrated among a small elite. He also observed that general strikes were declining while socialist parties were becoming increasingly influential.

Bernstein therefore called for a revision of Marxism and placed democracy at the center of socialism. He rejected the idea of socialism as a “dictatorship of the proletariat” and emphasized its pluralist character. Democracy would not only protect minority rights but also provide a peaceful, gradual transition from capitalism to socialism through parliamentary reform.

Reformist socialism developed at the same time in other countries in the form of Fabian society in Britain, progressivism in the United States, laborism in Australasia, and reformist socialist parties in France and Italy.

In Russia, orthodox Marxism was expanded by authors such as Georgy Plekhanov, Vladimir Lenin, Nikolai Bukharin, Leon Trotsky, and Joseph Stalin. Lenin, in the book What is to be done? (1902) presented his view of the best practical strategy for revolutionary Marxists to come to power. He decisively rejects all strategies of gradual or evolutionary implementation of socialism and resolutely defends revolutionary strategy as the only correct strategy for socialism to come to power. Lenin believes that ordinary workers are often only interested in short-term economic improvements to their position and that they, therefore, develop a self-awareness that supports the union's goals. To develop a true class consciousness among the workers and overcome the divisions that exist between the workers, an organized, disciplined, and centralized party must be formed in all capitalist societies, which will be led by the most militant and class-conscious members, and which will strictly adhere to orthodox Marxist principles and then transfer those principles to the entire proletariat. A centralized revolutionary party is the best way to carry out a successful socialist revolution and then introduce the "dictatorship of the proletariat".

In the book, The State and Revolution (1917), Lenin sees the inherent nature of the State to be a tool for the capitalist class to oppress other classes. Even in democracies with universal suffrage, the capitalist class retains its power. Lenin, unlike anarchists, opposes the immediate abolishment of the state after the socialist revolution, because the proletariat would need state mechanisms to crush any bourgeois resistance that is left after the revolution. When the dictatorship of the proletariat is fully implemented, then the state will wither away on its own, as state institutions begin to lose their capitalist and political character. Lenin believed that it was necessary to form an international anti-imperialist alliance that would fight both against capitalism and against imperialism. The end of imperial rivalries can only come about through a radical reorganization of the economic system of the entire planet, whereby capitalism would be replaced by socialism. The fall of capitalism has become necessary to ensure the survival of the human species.

The Second International was disbanded during the First World War of the war, among other things, and because of the divided attitudes about support, mentioned, the October Revolution, which led to the complete split in the once unified socialist movement communist and socialist-social democratic wing. The result was the creation of two international organizations: Comintern - Communist International (1919-1943), which brought together the communist wing, and Socialist Workers' International (1923-1940), which brought together the socialist and social democratic wing; this organization was renewed with the founding of the Socialist International in 1951 in Frankfurt.

Socialist Regimes in Europe

After the Bolshevik Party initiated the Revolution in Russia and won in the civil war, waged against opponents of socialism, Russia, later renamed the USSR, became the first socialist country in the world. USSR and later Mongolia (1924) were the only socialist countries in the world until the end of the World War II, when socialism become the ruling system in several central and Eastern European Countries – Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Yugoslavia, Rumania, Bulgaria and East Germany. In 1948, Yugoslavia, with its leader Joseph Broz Tito, broke away from Soviet control and built its own political and economic system. Soviet Union and other European countries loyal to it created a collective defence treaty known as the Warsaw Pact in 1955.

European socialist societies, particularly those modeled on the Soviet Union, shared several defining characteristics. Their economies were based on collective ownership of the means of production and distribution, while economic activity was controlled through central state planning rather than market forces. Politically, they were dominated by a single Communist Party, which justified its rule through Marxism-Leninism. The party also controlled political institutions, including the executive, legislative, and judicial systems, and promoted a unified ideological culture.

These societies initially achieved significant economic and social transformations. Within a few decades, countries that had previously been economically underdeveloped underwent rapid industrialization. They achieved high levels of employment and relatively stable prices, expanded women’s participation in the workforce, developed natural resources, and made substantial advances in science, technology, and military capabilities. Governments also expanded education, healthcare, and welfare systems.

Socialist governments made particularly strong efforts to reduce social inequality. Income differences declined in many countries, educational opportunities expanded, and distinctions between manual and non-manual occupations became less pronounced. Governments also attempted to prevent inequality from being passed between generations by abolishing inheritance of wealth and introducing educational and occupational quotas that favored children from working-class and peasant backgrounds.

The Soviet Union demonstrated the achievements of this model particularly clearly during the 1960s, when it competed with the United States in space exploration, military development, science, technology, sports, and the arts. However, these achievements became increasingly difficult to sustain. From the early 1970s, centrally planned economies began experiencing serious problems. Poor decisions by state bureaucrats led to inefficient investments, while production bottlenecks and shortages of consumer goods became increasingly common. Because the planned economy was often inefficient, managers developed informal practices such as hoarding, bribery, and personal networks to overcome bureaucratic obstacles.

At the same time, the promise of social equality weakened. A second stage of socialist development emerged in which new forms of inequality and privilege became established. Differences appeared in social prestige, educational opportunities, career advancement, social mobility, and access to material rewards.

Most importantly, a privileged Communist Party elite, known as the nomenklatura, gained significant advantages. Party officials had better access to education, housing, consumer goods, vacation facilities, cultural activities, and influential political positions. These privileges led some scholars to argue that socialist societies had developed a new dominant class, despite their official commitment to equality.

Thus, Soviet-type socialism achieved major improvements in industrialization, welfare, education, and social equality, but its centralized political and economic structures eventually produced inefficiency, shortages, bureaucracy, and new forms of inequality. These problems eventually encouraged socialist states to undertake various economic and political reforms.

Socialist Regimes in East Asia

In the aftermath of the Second World War, several Asian countries also implemented socialist regimes – North Korea in 1948, China in 1949, North Vietnam in 1954 (united with South Vietnam in 1976), and Laos and Cambodia in 1975. Socialism in these Asian countries rejected part of the Marxist orthodoxy as Asian socialism, both in ideological and practical terms, put more importance on agricultural workers, while in orthodox Marxism industrial workers played the most important role. The best example of this difference can be found in the works of Chinese leader Mao.

Mao’s approach to socialism is particularly notable for its emphasis on the revolutionary role of the peasantry. Earlier socialist thinkers, including Marx and Lenin, were generally skeptical of the revolutionary potential of agricultural workers. Mao, however, argued that this traditional model of socialist revolution could not be applied to a largely agrarian country like China, where a large industrial proletariat did not exist. He therefore maintained that the Chinese revolution had to be based primarily on the peasantry, which he regarded as a potential revolutionary force.

Another important characteristic of Maoist socialism was its rejection of the idea that socialist achievements were permanent. Mao believed that even after a successful revolution, social inequalities and class divisions could reappear. Old forms of inequality might return, while new ones could develop within the socialist system itself. Consequently, Mao argued that the revolutionary process could never be considered complete.

For Mao, revolutionaries therefore had to remain continuously vigilant and prepared to challenge emerging forms of inequality and opposition. This belief contributed to his concept of “permanent revolution,” in which revolutionary struggle was seen as an ongoing process rather than a single historical event.

Socialist Regimes in the Middle East

Arab socialism was a political and economic ideology that became especially influential in the Arab world during the 1950s and 1960s. It combined elements of socialism with Arab nationalism, anti-colonialism, and the goal of Arab unity. Unlike Marxism-Leninism, Arab socialism generally rejected class struggle and the idea of an international proletarian revolution. Instead, it emphasized cooperation between social classes and the creation of a strong, independent Arab state. The main goals of Arab socialism included: using state planning and public investment to modernize relatively underdeveloped economies; reducing extreme inequalities between wealthy landowners and poorer workers and peasants; land reform - redistributing large agricultural estates and limiting the concentration of land ownership; nationalization - bringing major industries, banks, natural resources, and other important economic sectors under state ownership.

One of the most important figures associated with Arab socialism was Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. His version, known as Nasserism, sought to achieve social justice and economic independence while protecting Egypt from foreign domination. Another major expression of Arab socialism was Ba'athism, developed by the Ba'ath Party, whose central slogan was “Unity, Liberty, Socialism.” Ba'athists aimed to unite the Arab peoples into a single political community while transforming their economies and reducing social inequality. Arab socialist policies were implemented most extensively in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Algeria, Libya, Sudan, and South Yemen.

Socialist Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa

African socialism was a group of socialist ideas that developed mainly during the period of African decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s. Unlike orthodox Marxism-Leninism, African socialism sought to develop a form of socialism that was adapted to African historical, cultural, and economic conditions. Its supporters generally argued that socialism should not simply be imported from Europe but should draw on traditions of communal ownership, cooperation, social equality, and collective responsibility that they associated with pre-colonial African societies.

One of the most important characteristics of African socialism was its rejection of the strict Marxist concept of class struggle. Many African socialist leaders believed that African societies did not have the same class structure as industrial European societies. Instead, they emphasized national unity and cooperation between different social groups. This was particularly important because newly independent states were trying to overcome the political and economic divisions created by colonial rule.

African socialism generally combined socialism, African nationalism, Pan-Africanism, and anti-colonialism. Its major goals included:

Economic independence: reducing dependence on former colonial powers and foreign capital.
Nationalization: placing important industries, banks, natural resources, and public services under state control.
Economic planning: using the state to direct development and industrialization.
Social equality: reducing economic inequality and improving the living conditions of workers and peasants.
Self-reliance: encouraging African countries to rely on their own resources and productive capacity.
Rural and agricultural development: improving agriculture and organizing rural production through cooperative or communal structures.
National unity and Pan-Africanism: strengthening solidarity within individual states and promoting cooperation among African countries.

The best-known example was Julius Nyerere’s Tanzania, where African socialism was developed under the concept of Ujamaa, meaning roughly “familyhood.” Nyerere argued that traditional African communal values could provide the foundation for a modern socialist society. The Arusha Declaration of 1967 formalized this approach, emphasizing self-reliance, communal ownership, nationalization, and rural development. Ujamaa villages were established to organize agricultural communities around collective production and services.

African socialist policies took different forms in a number of countries. The most important examples include: Tanzania — Julius Nyerere and Ujamaa, Ghana — Kwame Nkrumah, Senegal — Léopold Sédar Senghor, Guinea — Ahmed Sékou Touré, Mali — Modibo Keïta, Zambia — Kenneth Kaunda, Guinea-Bissau — Luís Cabral, Sierra Leone — Siaka Stevens, and Kenya.

Other newly independent African states, including Mozambique, Angola, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Madagascar, also adopted socialist or state-directed economic systems, although these were often closer to Marxism-Leninism or scientific socialism than to the specifically “African socialist” tradition.

Socialist Regimes in Latin America

Latin American socialism refers to a diverse set of socialist and left-wing ideas and political movements that developed in Latin America during the twentieth century. Unlike European Marxism, Latin American socialism was strongly influenced by anti-imperialism, nationalism, economic inequality, land concentration, and the region’s experience of colonialism and foreign intervention. As a result, it developed several different forms rather than following one unified model.

A major influence was Marxism, particularly after the Russian Revolution of 1917. Socialist and communist parties emerged across the region, but Latin American thinkers and political leaders often adapted Marxist ideas to local conditions. The central objectives generally included reducing social and economic inequality, redistributing land and wealth, expanding workers’ rights, increasing state control over strategic industries, improving education and healthcare, and achieving greater economic independence from foreign powers.

Another particularly important element was anti-imperialism. Many Latin American socialists believed that economic dependence on the United States and European countries prevented genuine political and economic independence. Consequently, nationalization of foreign-owned companies and natural resources became an important socialist policy. Land reform was also significant because wealth and agricultural land were historically concentrated in large estates. Another influence was Liberation theology. Liberation theology was a Christian movement that emerged in Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s. It combined Christian teachings with concerns about poverty, inequality, and social injustice. It argued that Christians should actively support the poor and oppressed and work for social and economic transformation, sometimes drawing on socialist and Marxist ideas.

The most important example is Cuba. The Cuban Revolution of 1959, led by Fidel Castro, eventually established the first socialist state in Latin America. The Cuban government nationalized major industries, introduced central economic planning, redistributed land, and expanded education and healthcare. Cuba subsequently developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union and adopted a Marxist-Leninist political system.

Chile represents a very different approach. Between 1970 and 1973, President Salvador Allende attempted to establish socialism through democratic and constitutional means. His Popular Unity government nationalized major industries, including the copper sector, and pursued land redistribution and social reforms. The experiment ended with the military coup of 11 September 1973, which brought Augusto Pinochet to power.

Nicaragua experienced another important socialist experiment after the Sandinista Revolution of 1979. The Sandinista government pursued land reform, nationalization, literacy campaigns, and expanded social programs, while retaining some elements of political pluralism. The Sandinistas lost power in the 1990 elections.

A later form emerged in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez, beginning with his election in 1998. Chávez called his project “Twenty-First Century Socialism.” It combined state intervention and redistribution with elections and continued private ownership. The government expanded social programs and increased state control over the oil industry. The model was subsequently continued under Nicolás Maduro.

Other countries, including Bolivia and Ecuador, later adopted left-wing governments influenced by socialist, indigenous, nationalist, and anti-neoliberal ideas. However, these should not automatically be classified as socialist states in the same sense as Cuba. The Latin American left has been highly diverse, ranging from Marxist-Leninist communism to democratic socialism and social democracy.

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