Behaviorism

Category: Theoretical approaches

Behaviorism, as a scientific approach to studying human behavior, developed primarily in the United States, as opposed to the psychoanalytic approach of studying human behavior by the method of “introspection”. John B. Watson in 1913 coined the term “behaviorism” and developed its earliest, or classical form, which sought to explain behavior through observance of antecedent stimulus (S) that elicits a publicly observable response (R). This approach is today called “methodological behaviorism.” American psychologist Burrhus F. Skinner launched, in the 1930s, a new form of behaviorism, that is called “radical behaviorism.” Radical behaviorism stands for the analysis of all observable forms of behavior, both private and public. Behaviorism’s influence on the social sciences was most present during the 1960s and 1970s, in a form of behavioral sociology, and in the social exchange tradition of George Homans and Richard Emerson.

Emerson sought to challenge the dominant view of power in the social sciences, the view that power is possessed by individuals and institutions that control the most important resources. He believed that power lies in the very relationship between individuals and institutions, therefore, that power is a relational phenomenon. The power of one person over another person is commensurate with the level to which the other person depends on the resources that the first person possesses. To define such a view of power, Emerson introduces the notion of "power-dependence relations." Such power relations are always manifested within the network of human relations. Using the concept of power-dependence relations, and within the theoretical framework of the social exchange theory, Emerson studied the issues of coalition building, social cohesion, commitment, trust, and solidarity.

Homans introduced his social exchange theory in the article "Social Behavior as Exchange" (1958) and the book Social Behavior (1961). Homans' theoretical approach is more guided by deductive logic. The social exchange theory is based on the critique of the most dominant contemporary theoretical direction in America - structural-functionalism. The theory of social exchange is based on several basic principles: the emphasis is on explaining the nature of relationships, rather than simply categorizing them; derivation of lower-ranking hypotheses must be obtained by deductive logic from abstract axioms of a higher level of generality; and the use of the principles of behavioral psychology as a general axiom. Advocating the view that psychological, and not social principles, are the ones that should represent the axioms on the basis of which hypotheses are created about the nature of social interaction and social institutions, led Homans to methodological individualism. He argued that it is impossible to understand social facts by using other social facts, but only through individual behavior. Social phenomena are always the result of the aggregation of individual behaviors. Since social phenomena arise and are maintained through individual behavior, the highest-order principles in sociology must be those relating to individual behavior.

Homans' theory of social exchange views social behavior as "an exchange of activity, tangible or intangible, and more or less rewarding or costly, between at least two persons" (Homans, 1961, 13). The process of exchange is not reserved only for the economy but takes place in all aspects of social life because all interactions between individuals include seeking a reward and avoiding negative consequences. Rewards can be social or psychological, such as: recognition, support, status, satisfaction, etc. It is this desire for personal gain that drives the motivation for social exchange, not collective or symbolic forces. Homans mostly focuses on exchange interactions between two people or within small groups and does not deal with general forms of exchange, at a wider level of society. Based on the exchange at the micro level, Homans explains more complicated phenomena such as: power, justice, and conformism. He wants to establish empirical hypotheses based on a small number of general principles, that are based on behavioral psychology. He introduces the categories he used in the book Social Group - Activities, Interactions, Sentiments, and Norms - into a new theoretical framework and combines them with the concepts of behavioral psychology. People in social exchange interactions tend to benefit and avoid harm, but they also have certain expectations about the consequences of exchange, so if their expectations are met, they feel satisfied, and if they are not, they feel dissatisfaction and anger. Homans, on the other hand, recognizes that sometimes people do not make decisions, and often do not make long-term rational calculations, which would maximize their success in interactions.

Authors: Emerson, Richard; Homans, George. Hull, Clark; Landberg, George; Molm, Linda; Skinner, Burrhus Frederick; Tolman, Edward Chace; Watson, J. Broadus.

Books:

Burgess, Robert L., and Don Bushell Jr., eds. Behavioral Sociology (1969);

Chomsky, N. The Case Against B. F. Skinner. New York Review of Books (1971);

Emerson. „Power-Dependence Relations”, in American Sociological Review (1962);

- „Power-Dependence Relations: Two Experiments”, in Sociometry (1964);

- „Exchange Theory: Part I: A Psychological Basis for Social Exchange”, and „Exchange Theory: Part II: Exchange Relations and Networks”, in Sociological Theories in Progress Joseph Berger (ed.) (1972);

Guerin, B. Analyzing Social Behavior. (1994);

Hull, C. Principles of Behavior. (1943);

Homans. „Social Behavior as Exchange”, in American Journal of Sociology (1958);

- Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms (1961);

Mead, G. H. Mind, Self and Society. (1934);

Molm, Linda D. “The Legitimacy of Behavioral Theory as a Sociological Perspective.” American Sociologist (1981);

Piaget, J. Psychology and Epistemology. (1970);

Skinner, B. F. Walden Two. (1948);

- Science and Human Behavior. (1953);

- Verbal Behavior (1957);

- Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis (1969);

- Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971);