Modernization Theory

Category: Theoretical approaches

The modernization theory emerged after WWII and it viewed the underdevelopment of poor countries as a direct consequence of a country’s internal features, especially its traditional cultural traits and psychological dispositions. Modernization theory has its roots in Max Weber's theory of rationalization, especially in areas of capitalist economy and bureaucracy. In The Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber sees capitalism as specifically marked by the inherent capitalist spirit, the main feature of which is the opposition to traditional economic action. The capitalist spirit contains a positive view of work and the acquisition of material wealth. Emphasis is placed on effort, thrift, discipline, and innovation, while laziness, gaining wealth without work, and hedonistic spending is viewed negatively. In pre-capitalist economies, people worked only as much as they needed to achieve a standard of living that was satisfactory to them. The capitalist spirit led to the complete rationalization of economic life.

Weber sees the development of bureaucracy as most closely related to the development of a legal-rational type of authority. Within a bureaucratic organization, individuals are connected hierarchically, each position has specific powers and duties, and there are clear relationships of superiority and subordination. There are general formalized rules that all members must strictly follow. The duties and salary of each person are precisely defined, the prospects for progress within the organization are known, and job qualifications are acquired through schooling or special exams. Bureaucracy is guided by instrumental rationality, and its advantages are: predictability, speed, resource savings, and uniformity.

American sociologist Talcott Parsons, following Weber, states that with the transition to a modern industrial society, four more types of universals are formed: 1) bureaucratic organization, 2) legal system of generalized universalic norms applicable to the whole society, 3) money and markets based on property and contract, 4) democratic association - universal suffrage, parliamentary assemblies, secret ballot, free elections, political associations and the concept of citizenship. With the evolution of society, cultural and social subsystems become more autonomous and independent of state control.

Economic Modernization

One of the most important proponents of modernization theory was American economist and political scientist Walt Rostow. In his research, throughout his life, he focused on the question of the causes of the economic development of different countries. To answer this question, he developed a theory of modernization based on the concept of the "stages of economic growth", and it is presented in the book Stages of Economic Growth: A Non Communist Manifesto (1960). In the „traditional stage“, or the first stage of growth, where poor countries are, economic institutions, technology, and cultural values do not provide fertile ground for economic development. In underdeveloped countries, traditional culture, social institutions, weak work ethic, and lack of entrepreneurial spirit impede economic efficiency. In addition, large families, with many dependent members, make it difficult to save for investments. Fatalistic values, which emphasize that suffering is a normal part of life and promote acceptance of one's own bad destiny, are another major obstacle to economic development. The government in underdeveloped countries makes it even more difficult to abandon traditional values by controlling wages and prices.

In the second stage, which Rostow calls „the preconditions for take-off“ the process of development begins when the elite start initiating innovations in economic activities. Well-educated elite steers the country toward investments in new technology and infrastructure, such as transportation and water supplies. All of this helps build up conditions that would enable countries to take-off. In the third or "take-off stage", poor countries begin to reject traditional values and institutions, and people begin to save and invest for future gains. Growth is generated from a small number of economic sectors, such as textiles or manufacturing. These few take-off industries become drivers of growth, while other sectors lag behind and remain dominated by traditional practices. Developed countries should help this process of economic growth of poor countries by financing strategic areas: birth control programs, infrastructure projects (electrification, transport), and the development of new industrial sectors.

In the fourth stage, which the author calls "the drive for maturity", there is a stable development of new technologies and successful adoption of social institutions of rich countries. In the fifth stage, which is called "the age of high mass consumption", ordinary people, as they have increased their standard of living, begin to spend money on a wide range of goods and services, and the state itself joins rich countries.

In his book, Social Change in the Industrial Revolution (1959), American sociologist Neil Smelser expands the functionalist model by introducing, to this predominantly static paradigm, an analysis of social change that he studied in the context of industrialization and modernization. He sees the industrial revolution as a multidimensional social process involving political, economic, family, cultural, and scientific change. Smelser shows how the modernization of production technology was related to changes in all other areas. He pays special attention to the question of how the factory system in Britain has influenced the change in the family structure and studies the gender division of labor as an independent variable that has affected both the economy and the family.

Political Modernization

American political scientist and sociologist David Apter focused on social change and modernization, primarily in the context of sub-Saharan Africa. For Apter, modernization is a special case of social development. He explores which aspects of tradition in a country can slow or accelerate the modernization of society. Unlike other modernization theorists, he does not view this process as straightforward and uniform but believes that it is necessary to adapt the modernization process to the local context. In this context, he explores alternative ways of modernization in different countries. However, no matter what the context, successful modernization always requires a social system capable of innovation, as well as a highly differentiated social structure.

Israeli sociologist Noah Eisenstadt also studied the process of modernization. Modern modernization in Europe is a unique case that was the product of symbolic and institutional characteristics specifics of that civilization. As modernization spread around the world, "multiple modernities" developed, and the best example of a different modernization is Japan in the 19th century.

Cultural Modernization

American political scientist and sociologist Ronald Inglehart is best known for studying the development of postmodern values in the United States and around the world. He believes that post-material values that emphasize aesthetic, intellectual, and self-actualizing needs replaced modernist values that are focused on the material, that is, economic needs. This change occurs because the generations that grew up after the Second World War, grew up in conditions of relatively high economic security, while the previous generations were more exposed to wars and poverty. This "silent revolution", (the concept first introduced in his book Silent Revolution, 1977) which took place in the 1960s and 1970s, led to cultural and political differences between the generations.

Authors: Apter E. David, Berger Peter, Eisenstadt Shmuel Noah, Inglehart Ronald, Parsons Talcot, Rostow W. Walt, Smelser Joseph Neil. Bendix, Reinhold; Berger, Brigitte; Hagen, E. Everett; Harrison, David; Hoogvelt, M. M. Ankie; Hoselitz, F. Berthold; Inkeles, Alex; Kellner, Hansfried; Lerner, Daniel; Levy, Marion Jr.; McClelland, David.

Books:

Apter, David. The Politics of Modernization (1965);

Eisenstadt, Noah. Modernization: Protest and Change (1966);

- Tradition, Change, and Modernity (1973);

- Patterns of Modernity (1987);

- Multiple Modernities (2002);

Inglehart, Ronald. Modernization and Postmodernization (1997);

- Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence (2005);

Parsons, Talcott. Structure and Process in Modern Societies (1960);

- Sociological Theory and Modern Society (1967);

- The System of Modern Societies (1971);

Rostow, Walt. The Process of Economic Growth (1952);