Concept of post-industrial society refers to the stage of economic and technological development in which industrial sector is not the dominant one (weather in terms of share of national GDP or in a share of work force employed in it), as other sectors, primarily service and financial sectors, become dominant; and to all the changes in the wider economy, culture, politics and society that are caused by the process of deindustrialization.

                          Economy in the Post-Industrial Age

Scott Lash and John Urry co-authored The End of Organized Capitalism (1987), where they argue that advanced capitalist societies have shifted away from increasing order toward a phase they call “disorganized capitalism.” Focusing on countries such as Britain, the United States, France, West Germany, and Sweden, they analyze how changes in space, class, and culture have reshaped capitalist social relations. Their findings point to trends such as the decentralization of capital within nation-states, a growing separation between banks, industry, and government, and shifts in patterns of production and class-based residential organization. They also emphasize that differences between national forms of capitalism reflect how each country historically developed its own version of organized capitalism.

According to Lash and Urry, by the 1980s, earlier forms of organized capitalism had been replaced by new patterns of investment and growth that disrupted traditional class structures. As markets increasingly focused on product differentiation and segmentation, class-based identities weakened, while lifestyles became more prominent. However, these lifestyles no longer clearly signal belonging to specific social groups. Instead, in an economy centered on information, services, and symbolic exchange rather than industrial production, lifestyles have become more reflexive and self-expressive, shaped by individual choices rather than fixed class positions. This shift also echoes revisions of Pierre Bourdieu’s ideas, highlighting divisions within the middle class between older and newer cultural orientations.

In Economies of Signs and Space (1994), Lash and Urry extend this analysis, arguing that contemporary capitalism is even more effective at commodifying everyday life. Areas once considered natural—such as health, identity, and the body—have become key sites of consumption. This has led to the expansion of industries like private healthcare, wellness tourism, specialized diets, and over-the-counter health products, reflecting the growing commercialization of personal well-being in late modern societies.

In The New Spirit of Capitalism (1999), co-authors Luc Boltanski and Ève Chiapello analyze how capitalism has adapted by incorporating its critics. They argue that since the 1970s, capitalism has shifted from hierarchical, Fordist structures to flexible, network-based organizations that emphasize autonomy and initiative, often at the expense of stability and security.

Saskia Sassen claims that in the age of globalization, great socio-economic changes are taking place, as many old industries and areas in which they were concentrated are declining, and new areas with new and more profitable industries are strengthening. The biggest change, especially in more developed countries, is the decline in the importance of classic industries - mining, textile production, production of consumer goods, machinery industry, and the like. These jobs, which previously gave durability and security of employment and income to manual workers, as well as the possibility of creating influential unions, are disappearing and are being replaced by insecure and poorly paid jobs in service industries.

These changes, at the state level, lead to the creation of increasing economic differences between regions and individuals, which condition migration to cities and areas experiencing economic growth. As global cities rise, so do other, less developed areas. At the global level, there are growing inequalities between the countries of the center and the countries of the periphery; there is an increase in immigration from the periphery to the center; and the weakening of the influence of nation-states in relation to global cities. Nation-states do not lose their significance completely, but the concept of sovereignty and territoriality is changing crucially. Sassen calls this process "deterritorialization of national territory".

                   Technology in the Post-Industrial Age

In his book Speed ​​and Politics: An Essays on Dromology (1977), Paul Virilio introduces the term "dromology" which refers to the forced logic of speed behind the development of technology. In his research on war, Virilio studied World War II, the Gulf War, and the war in Kosovo. He believes that military projects and military technology have a key impact on the course of history. At the end of the twentieth century, war ceases to be territorial and industrial and becomes extraterritorial, and post-industrial - information warfare takes place in real time. In modern society, there is an increasing spread of surveillance, but also global terrorism. Temporal and spatial disintegration, which occurs due to the rise of mass media and information technologies, makes it impossible to effectively review strategic political and military decisions and prevents any ethical and diplomatic solutions to world problems.

                      Culture in the Post-Industrial Age

In books, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (1973) and The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (1976), Daniel Bell argues that the hedonistic culture of capitalism, in the most developed countries, is not in line with the dominance of rationality required by the economic system. There is a growing divergence and alienation of the economy, as an area of ​​social structure, on the one hand, and culture, on the other. The Postmodern culture celebrates the hedonistic world of mass consumption, fashion, photography, and travel; the consumerist culture is built around play, entertainment, and show. In postmodern culture, the bourgeois value system based on Protestant ethics and Puritan self-control is being rejected. Post-industrial society is not a decentralized society, because there is a new social structure that is growing. Theorists in science, economics, and information dominate empiricists and create a class of knowledge. At the heart of post-industrial society is a professional class that embodies the norms of social responsibility and ethics of community service. Profit does not play the main motive in this class, so this class will succeed in imposing itself on society with its professional values.

However, the techno-economic structure does not determine developments in the fields of politics and culture. Each of these three areas of society is governed by different and sometimes opposing principles. The economy is ruled by the principle of efficiency, politics by the principle of equality, while culture is marked by the principle of self-knowledge. Bell lists five basic cultural contradictions of capitalism: 1) the differences between economic growth and the needs of the population; 2) differences in the existence and realization of social values; 3) differences in quantity and quality of life; 4) differences in inflation and monetary stability; 5) the contradiction between plans for progress and realistically achieved social development. He emphasizes that modern capitalism contains the deepest opposition in its very logic of functioning, because it requires a puritanical ethic of work, while, at the same time, it depends on the hedonistic ethic of consumption.

Jean-François Lyotard, in the The Postmodern Condition (1979), argues that in pre-modern societies, the narrative was, above all, preserved with the help of those who told stories, where tradition and customs strengthened the sense of social unity. In modern times, science, which has received legitimacy from the state and other institutions, has led to the creation of metanarratives that have replaced storytelling, customs, and traditions. This development represents the realization of the ideals of the Enlightenment, that is, faith in human reason and progress that will enable the emergence of objective and positive science.

Metanarratives control how knowledge is created, evaluated, and organized. Examples of metanarratives are Enlightenment rationalism or the Marxist belief in the replacement of capitalism by the dictatorship of the proletariat. These metanarratives are based on the nostalgic need for the organic unity of society. postmodernism and postindustrial society reject metanarratives as totalizing knowledge that imposes absolute truths. Instead, postmodernism brings many paths to truth and the creation of new narratives that will resist metanarratives. Relativity and uncertainty are accepted, and knowledge is always seen as incomplete. Universal standards and criteria are rejected, and multiple paradigms are introduced. Knowledge is becoming decentralized because the fight against metanarratives and bureaucratized science and technology is being waged at the micro level. In addition, there is resistance to the centralized power of the modern state and the dominance of multinational companies.

Jean Baudrillard, in his early works, The System of Objects (1968) and The Consumer Society (1970), claims that modern society is increasingly structured through signs and symbols. All objects can be analyzed in the context of binary oppositions that reveal the rules and internal relationships that structure objects. Goods are signs that give individuals a cultural identity. The sign constitutes a special material reality that is used for prestige, status, and thus for social differentiation. In premodern (symbolic) societies, social relations are organized around symbolic exchanges at festivals, rites, and rituals that strengthen the social order. Here, the sign had a purely reference function. Industrial societies have a fixed and stable hierarchy of signs that clearly distinguishes the real from the unreal, so the sign and reality are truly equivalent, and goods reflect social statuses. Culture is organized around a social world in which words, sounds, and images have a direct relationship with object and reality: code produces coherent meanings and provokes precisely defined answers.

With the emergence of postmodern culture, the sign and its code become autonomous, producing their own inner meanings without reference to objective reality. The reference value is destroyed and replaced with total relativity, combinations, and simulation, so that the signs are exchanged with other signs, rather than with the real things. The sign becomes liberated from the archaic obligation to mean something and finally becomes free, indifferent, and indefinite, in a structural and combinatorial game that overcomes the rule of a certain equivalence. In the new "semiurgical" society, the code functions as an organizational principle that creates new forms of communication and social order.

In his later works, Simulacra and Simulation (1981) and Fatal Strategies (1983), Baudrillard describes the social world as dominated by the media and the explosion of the image. In modernity, copies or models represented real objects or events, while in the postmodern era, that is, in the era of "simulacrum", copy or simulacrum produces reality, objects, and events. The performance of the representation is abandoned. Television and marketing are invading all the intimate processes of our social life, while reality collapses into hyperreality. "Dedifferentiation" means that there is no difference between news and entertainment, marketing and culture. Society consists of a large, phantasmagoric superstructure of signs and images with which the individual has neither an objective nor an alienated relationship.

Ronald Inglehart is best known for studying the development of postmodern values ​​in the United States and around the world. He believes that post-material values ​​that emphasize aesthetic, intellectual, and self-actualizing needs replaced modernist values ​​that are focused on the material, that is, economic needs. This change occurs because the generations that grew up after the Second World War grew up in conditions of relatively high economic security, while the previous generations were more exposed to wars and poverty. This "silent revolution" (the concept first introduced in his book Silent Revolution, 1977), which took place in the 1960s and 1970s, led to cultural and political differences between the generations.

George Ritzer, in the book McDonaldization of Society (1993), uses the concept of "McDonaldization as the application of Max Weber's rationality to the overall structure of society, with McDonald's business taken only as an example that best reflects this process. Unlike the period in which Weber wrote, bureaucratization no longer represents the best model of rationalization;  McDonaldization has become the best way of rationalization in modern times.

The type of rationalization that was introduced by McDonaldization, seeks to achieve four main goals: 1) to increase efficiency, 2) to increase measurability, 3) to increase predictability, and 4) to increase control. An additional goal is, where possible, to replace human labor with mechanical labor. McDonald's, through its business model, perfectly achieves four main goals, although it still retains human labor and has not replaced it with mechanical labor. McDonald's has managed to achieve these goals by standardizing every aspect of its business: retail outlets, menus, meal layouts, prefabricated ingredients, food preparation, customer relations, and the like. In addition, McDonald's has perfectly applied Frederick Taylor's workflow rationalization and Ford's model of automation - food is produced as cars are produced on the workbench.

The essence of the process of McDonaldization is the application of these principles and models of work in as many companies as possible, but also in other organizations and institutions (churches, schools, hospitals, courts). Ritzer warns that behind such a formal rationalization of the work process, there is a danger of "the irrationality of rationality". As the main examples of irrationality, Ritzer cites: higher costs, dehumanization, loss of authenticity, increased environmental and health risks, etc. In more recent work, Ritzer examines how Starbucks' business models (coffee sales) and online shopping sites, such as Amazon and eBay, have influenced the McDonaldization process.

When he began to develop his theory of McDonaldization in the 1980s, Ritzer was primarily focused on studying the situation in the United States. He later began to study how the process of McDonaldization is spreading across the planet, and thus becoming part of a broader process of globalization. In addition to the process of McDonaldization, he studies how consumer culture, and the use of credit cards, are becoming global phenomena. In the book Globalization of Nothing (2004), Ritzer takes over the concept of "non-places", which was introduced by anthropologist Marc Augé and further expounds it. Apart from non-places, such as shopping malls and airports, Ritzer believes that there is also a globalization of "non-things" (Gucci bags), "non-people" (costumed characters at Disneyland), and "non-services" (bank ATMs). Ritzer defines "nothing" as something that is controlled and conceived at the central level, and at the same time deprived of specific essential content. Ritzer calls the process of spreading nothing (non-places, non-things, non-people, non-services) "grobalization". Grobalization is the complete opposite of the process of "glocalization" (Robertson).

Frederic Jameson, in the book Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991), explores how postmodern culture is linked to the advanced stage of capitalism. He observes the development of capitalism through three phases: market capitalism, monopoly capitalism, and multinational capitalism. Each of these phases of capitalism was marked by different cultural forms: realism, modernism, and postmodernism. After 1945, the period of late capitalism begins and it represents the purest form of capitalism. The expansion of multinational capital leads to the penetration of culture into all areas of society. Thus, postmodern cultural production penetrates all areas of late-capitalist society, erasing the boundaries between different structures. Postmodernism is based on reducing the differences between all social areas that become acculturated and prevent the emergence of independent forms. Postmodernism is a cultural field of force where coexisting and diverse elements are brought together in structural unity. There is a totalizing and pervasive acculturation at work that assimilates and integrates all different cultural forms.

Zygmunt Bauman explores the post-industrial and postmodern age in the books Legislators and Interpreters: On Modernity, Postmodernity, and Intellectuals (1987), Freedom (1988), and Intimations of Postmodernity (1992). As specific features of postmodernity, he singles out: the huge growth and expansion of mass media, new information technologies, an increase in transnational migrations, the post-industrial economy, the growth of the ideology of consumerism, the commodification of culture, etc. Large metanarratives and a strong state, which dominated modernity, have been replaced by a state of consumerism that is subject to the will of multinational corporations. Bauman believes that in such a society, it is necessary for intellectuals, as well as other people, to take a critical stance, build their sense of moral correctness, and take responsibility for their own lives.

He continues to deal with similar topics in the book Postmodernity and Its Discontents (1997). Bauman believes that postmodernism has led to many key and irreversible changes in society. Collective restrictions of modernity were abolished, and absolute primacy began to be given to freedom of expression of individual desires. The idea that modernity brought - that a good society should be planned and implemented by the state, which was the ideal of the welfare state - that idea was destroyed by postmodernism. Processes of increasing individualization, an unprecedented speed of change in all spheres, criminalization, and exclusion of those who lost the market competition, all led to an increase in the state of general insecurity, doubt, and fear.

Marc Augé introduced the concept of the “non-place” in the book Non-Places (1995). The concept is a crucial part of his anthropology of supermodernity, and it refers to generic public spaces like airports, bus terminals, hotels, supermarkets, shopping malls, theme parks, etc. Augé states that: "If a place can be defined as relational, historical, and concerned with identity, then a space which cannot be defined as relational, or historical, or concerned with identity will be a non-place. The hypothesis advanced here is that supermodernity produces non-places, meaning spaces which are not themselves anthropological places and which, unlike Baudelairean modernity, do not integrate the earlier places: instead, these are listed, classified, promoted to the status of 'places of memory', and assigned to a circumscribed and specific position” (Augé 1995, in French 1992: 77-78). Non-places are transient and do not possess symbolic significance, while people in them are anonymous and devoid of their personal identities.

                        Politics in the Post-Industrial Age

In Why Americans Don't Vote (1988), Labor Parties in Post-Industrial Societies (1992), Why Americans Still Don't Vote (2000), and Keeping Down the Black Vote (2009), Francis Fox Piven explores the political and economic developments in the postindustrial age that led the poor and other disenfranchised populations not to vote, and therefore not to have adequate political representation in US Congress. Piven shows that the reason for the low turnout in the US elections is the systematic attempt of the political elite to limit the right to vote by making the registration process for voting more difficult. It is precisely such machinations that have led to the interests of the poor not being proportionally represented in government institutions. The weakening of the power of the trade union is another important factor influencing the reduction of the power of the working class. The author concludes that the poor people in the United States are largely excluded from the democratic process and that the enormous economic inequalities created by capitalism substantially limit political equality.

                     Society in the Post-Industrial Age

Daniel Bell, in the book The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (1973),  writes about the arrival of post-industrial society, in which society will cease to be organized on class principles. Post-industrial society is a social formation in which private property, class interest, and class conflict have lost their centrality and priority. The new society is organized around the axis of theoretical knowledge, education, science, and government institutions. Traditional businessmen are being replaced by scientists, economists, and engineers. The source of innovation and the creation of practical policy are universities, and not, as before, business. Society is divided into three spheres: economy, political community, and culture. The political community regulates the distribution of power and various interests in society; culture, as an area of ​​self-realization, establishes meaning through expressive rituals and art; economics refers to the social structure. Society as a whole is not organized around one dominant element or integrated into a single system, because there is always a mismatch between different spheres and areas.

In his book The Post-Industrial Society (1969), Alain Touraine states that the second half of the twentieth century saw the development of a post-industrial society, which he called a "programmed" society. In post-industrial societies, the focus is shifting from the production of goods to the production of information. The development of the welfare state abolished the autonomy of the economic sphere because more and more economic decisions are made by the centralized state bureaucracy. It is this centralization and bureaucratization of economic policy that have contributed to post-industrial societies becoming programmed. The creation and dissemination of information is becoming most important for society and the economy, so universities are taking on the most important role in creating and shaping a new type of society and its elite. The centralized power of the state tends to control both the economy and public opinion and thus endanger the power of collective actors and the democratic order. In industrial society, the main representatives of the ruling class were the capitalists, and the main representatives of the popular class were the workers, so class conflicts were characterized by a conflict between workers and capitalists. In postmodern society, the most important representatives of the ruling class are politicians, bureaucrats, and managers, and the main force of resistance to the ruling class is no longer workers and the labor movement, but new social movements - environmental, student, anti-nuclear, feminist, and the like.

References:

Adkins. The Post-Fordist Sexual Contract: Working and Living in Contingency (2016);

Baker, Scott. ‘‘Reflection, Doubt, and the Place of Rhetoric in Postmodern Social Theory’’, in Sociological Theory (1990);

Baudrillard, Jean. Simulations (1983);

Bauman, Zygmunt ‘‘Is There a Postmodern Sociology?’’ Theory, Culture and Society (1988);

Bauman. Intimations of Postmodernity (1992);

     -     Postmodernity and Its Discontents (1997);

     -     Globalisation: The Human Consequences (1998);

     -     Liquid Modernity (2000);

Bell. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (1973);

Bell, Daniel. ‘‘The Third Technological Revolution’’, in Dissent (1989);

      -     The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (1976);

Block, Fred. Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse (1990);

Bogard, William. ‘‘Closing Down the Social: Baudrillard’s Challenge to Contemporary Sociology’’, in Sociological Theory (1990);

Boli, John, and Francisco Ramirez. ‘‘World Culture and the Institutional Development of Mass Education.’’, in John Richardson (ed.) Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (1986);

Boli, John, and George M. Thomas. ‘‘World Culture in the World Polity: A Century of International Non-Governmental Organization’’, in American Sociological Review (1997);

Bookchin, Murray. Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1971);

Brint, S. “Professionals and the ‘‘Knowledge Economy’’: Rethinking the Theory of Postindustrial Society”, in Current Sociology (2001);

Brzeziński, Zbigniew. Between Two Ages: America’s Role in the Technocratic Era (1970);

Brown, Richard Harvey. ‘‘Rhetoric, Textuality, and the Postmodern Turn in Sociological Theory’’, in Sociological Theory (1990);

     -     Society as Text: Essays on Rhetoric, Reason, and Reality (1987);

Burris, Beverly. ‘‘Technocratic Organization and Control’’, in Organization Studies (1989);

Clark, Colin. The Conditions of Economic Progress, 3rd ed. (1960);

Clegg, Stewart R. Modern Organizations: Organization Studies in the Postmodern World (1990);

Cohen, Stephen, and John Zysman. Manufacturing Matters: The Myth of the Post-Industrial Economy (1987);

Dahrendorf, Ralf. Society and Democracy in Germany (1967);

Drucker, Peter. The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to Our Changing Society (1969);

Ellul, J. The Technological Society (1954);  

Esping-Andersen. Social Foundations of Postindustrial Economies (1999);

Etzioni, Amitai. The Active Society (1968);

Featherstone, Mike. Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity (1990);

Fiala, Robert, and Audri Gordon Lanford. ‘‘Educational Ideology and the World Educational Revolution 1950–1970’’, in Comparative Education Review (1987);

Foucault, Michel. Archeology of Knowledge (1969);

Frankel, Boris. The Post-Industrial Utopians (1987);

Fuchs, Victor. The Service Economy (1968);

Giddens, Anthony. The Consequences of Modernity (1990);

Halmos, P. The Personal Service Society (1970);

Hartwell R. M. ‘‘The Service Revolution: The Growth of Services in the Modern Economy’’, in The Industrial Revolution, 1700–1914 (1973);

Heyderbrand, Wolf. ‘‘New Organizational Forms’’, in Work and Occupations (1989);

Ingelhart, Ronald. The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics (1977);

Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1992);

     -     ‘‘Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism’, in’ New Left Review (1984);

Kahn, Herman, and Anthony Wiener. The Year 2000 (1967);

Korpi, W. & Palme, J. “New Politics and Class Politics in the Context of Austerity and Globalization: Welfare State Regress in 18 Countries, 1975-95”, in American Political Science Review (2003);

Kumar, Krishan. From Postindustrial to Postmodern Society (1995);

     -     The Rise of Modern Society (1988);

     -     Prophecy and Progress: The Sociology of Industrial and Post-Industrial Society (1978);

Lasch, Christopher. The Culture of Narcissism (1979);

Lash, Scott. Sociology of Postmodernism (1990);

     -     ‘‘Postmodernism as a Regime of Signification’’, in Theory, Culture and Society (1988);

 Lash, Scott, and John Urry. 1987 The End of Organized Capitalism

     -     Economies of Signs and Space (1994)

Lemert, Charles. ‘‘General Social Theory, Irony, Postmodernism’’, in Steven Seidman and David G. Wagner, (eds.). Postmodernism and Social Theory (1990);

Lipset, Seymour. Rebellion in the University (1976);

Lyotard, Jean-François. The Postmodern Condition (1984);

Mandel, Ernst. Late Capitalism (1978);

Meyer, John ‘‘Concluding Commentary: The Evolution of Modern Stratification Systems.’’ In David Grusky (ed.). Social Stratification: Class, Race and Gender in Sociological Perspective (1991);

     -     ‘‘The World Polity and the Authority of the Nation State’’ in Albert Bergesen, (ed.). Studies of the Modern World System (1980);

Meyer, John and John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco O. Ramirez ‘‘World Society and the Nation State’’, in American Journal of Sociology (1997);

Meyer, John, and Michael Hannan. ‘‘National Development in a Changing World System: An Overview’’, in National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950– 1970. (1979);

Meyer, John, Francisco Ramirez, Richard Rubinson, and John Boli-Bennett. 1977 ‘‘The World Educational Revolution, 1950–1970’’, in Sociology of Education

Penty, Arthur. 1917 Old Worlds for New: A Study of the Post- Industrial State

Pichardo, N. A. (1997) “New Social Movements: A Critical Review”, in Annual Review of Sociology

Piore, Michael, and Charles Sabel. 1984 The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity

Piven. Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (1992);

Richta, Radovan, et al. Civilization at the Crossroads: Social and Human Implications of the Scientific and Technological Revolution, 3rd ed. (1969);

Ritzer, George. Postmodern Social Theory (1997);

     -     ‘‘The Permanently New Economy: The Case for Reviving Economic Sociology’’, in Work and Occupations (1989);

Robertson, Roland. 1990 ‘‘Mapping the Global Condition: Globalization as the Central Concept’’ In Mike Featherston, (ed.). Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity

     -      ‘‘Globalization, Politics and Religion’’ In J. A. Beckford and T. Luckmann, (eds.). The Changing Face of Religion (1989);

Rosenau, Pauline Marie. Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences: Insights, Inroads, and Intrusions (1992);

Sassen, S. “Epilogue”, in Roulleau-Berger, L. (ed.). Youth and Work in the Post Industrial City of North America and Europe (2003);

     -     Globalization and its Discontents (1999);

     -     A Sociology of Globalization (2006);

Smart, Barry. ‘‘Modernity, Postmodernity and the Present’’, in Bryan S. Turner (ed.). Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity (1990);

Smith, Anthony. ‘‘Towards a Global Culture?’’, in Mike Featherstone (ed.) Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity (1990);

Steinbicker, J. Zur Theorie der Informationsgesellschaft (2001);

Tilly, C. Social Movements, Old and New. Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change (1988);

Touraine. The Post-Industrial Society (1971, in French 1969); 

     -     Return of the Actor: Social Theory in Postindustrial Society (1988, in French 1984);

Turner, Bryan ‘‘Periodization and Politics in the Postmodern.’’ In Bryan S. Turner (ed.). Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity (1990);

Turner, Jonathan. Historical Statistics of the United States, Part I. Colonial Times to 1970. (1975);

Virilio. Negative Horizon: An Essay in Dromoscopy (1977);

Webster, F. Theories of the Information Society (1995).