American sociologist Edwin Lemert is best known for his study of deviant behavior from the standpoint of symbolic interactionism. Lemert's “labeling theory”, which he calls the theory of social reaction, derives from his theory of deviant behavior. Central to his labeling theory is that society's reaction to a person's primary deviance most often leads to the intensification and consolidation of that person's deviant behavior. Lemert points to three key processes relevant to deviant behavior. The first is “differentiation”, the removal of an individual's behavior from the norm of the environment in which he finds himself. The second process is the “social reaction” to such behavior of the individual. The social reaction includes expressing emotional reactions to deviant behavior, but also specific activities of others caused by the deviant behavior of the individual. The third process is “individuation”, the manifestation of the cause of deviance. Individuation consists of primary deviance, which is originally deviant behavior normalized by individuals; and secondary deviance, which is a response to environmental reactions to primary deviant behavior. Lemert studied many forms of deviant behavior: alcoholism, speech impediments, mental illness, and financial fraud.

American sociologist Howard Becker also used symbolic interactionism to further develop labeling theory. His most famous book, Outsiders (1963), is the result of an empirical study of marijuana users. Contrary to the popular belief that marijuana users possess specific psychological characteristics, Becker concluded that every person has the potential to become a marijuana user if a combination of unfavorable circumstances occurs. He believes that sociologists, therefore, should focus on studying the process of becoming a marijuana user, as well as the meaning that the user attaches to marijuana use. In the very process of adopting deviant behavior, three different stages build on each other. Becker believes that deviant behavior is not a consequence of the characteristics of the individual, but derives from the label that society imposes on some form of behavior. The labeling theory studies how the interaction between the environment and those who break the rules, shapes their identity and draws them into deviant "careers".

Books:

Becker, Howard. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963);

Lemert, Edwin. Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior (1951);

     -     Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control (1967);

     -     Social Action and Legal Change (1970).