Formal sociology developed at the end of the 19th century in Germany. German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies is considered one of the founders of formal sociology, and his teachings were influenced by the ideas of Wilhelm Wundt, Thomas Hobbes, and Marx. Tönnies is best known for his work Community and Society (1887), in which he presented the well-known dichotomous division into "community" (Gemeinschaft) and "society" (Gesellschaft- also sometimes translated as „association“) as the two main ideal types of human groups. The community is the first, in the historical sense, and it is created by the „natural will“ (Wesenwille). The community is a place of common life, and the best examples of the community are household and family, neighborhood, village and rural life, and ethnic communities (which are connected by customs, language, and religion).

Society emerged with the rise of urban culture, customs, and attitudes of the capitalist class (the third class at the time of the French Revolution). Society is characterized by „rational will“ (Kürwille), and the main examples are the city, joint stock companies, scientific institutions, and the like. The community is similar to a living organism, while society is transitory and superficial and similar to a mechanical aggregate or artifact. A community is formed spontaneously through long-term "organic" development and is determined by emotions, customs, traditions, solidarity, trust, and intimacy. Societies are created by planned, conscious, and rational action, and the relations of rationality, calculation, selfishness, and emotional distance prevail in them. While relations and order in the community are maintained through tradition and solidarity, society is governed by formal regulations and external sanctions.

Tönnies sees the origin of the relationship of connection in the community in the very fact of birth within the community, and the factors that affect the relationship are gender and origin. The strongest ties are those between mother and child, husband and wife, and brothers and sisters. The maternal relationship is based on pure love, while the relationship between the spouses can lead to the one-sided submission of the woman. To avoid this subordination, it is necessary to build a lasting relationship of mutual affirmation, while care and love for common children and property can help in that. The attitude of the father towards the children best expresses the attitude of domination in the community. As patriarchy proved to be better in war and economic activities, it became a general cultural form. Apart from biological kinship, the greatest sources of the community are common life, common religion, common language, and intellectual closeness. Organic or natural will, in the community, is based on understanding and harmony.

In society, people live in isolation, everyone fights for themselves and protects their privacy. In society, all relationships are based on reciprocity, if someone gives or does something to someone, a counter favor or counter gift must have equivalent significance. Society forms the fiction of an entity (subject) that gives general values ​​to the members of society. A rational will is aimed at achieving a common good - the goal for which the society was founded. The value of a thing is objective, everyone values ​​it in the same way because the same amount of invested work is needed to create it. The very value of a thing stems from the fact that someone owns that thing and no one else. In society, everyone selfishly works for himself, but they also work for the common good, because everybody produces the goods that are easiest for some person to produce. Thus, the total realized the value of goods for the whole society is maximized. Tönnies calls the limited freedom that exists within society, which reflects "natural law," a convention that differs from custom or tradition. Civil society is an aggregate of many natural and artificial individuals, and political economy is a science that needs to know its nature and movement. Competitive relations prevail in civil society, but hostilities are curbed by forming coalitions and through conventional sociability (civility). The emergence of civil society and organizations didn't bring the disappearance of communities, because they continue to survive within civil society.

In later works, the most important of which is Introduction to Sociology (1931), Tönnies expands his approach. He divides sociology into three separate disciplines: 1) pure or theoretical sociology, 2) applied sociology, and 3) empirical sociology or sociography. Pure sociology deals with ideal types, with which it describes empirical reality. Applied sociology applies ideal types in the analysis and interpretation of specific societies and historical and evolutionary processes (especially those that lead from community to society). Empirical sociology studies the current state of society. Theoretical sociology uses constructive, applied sociology deductive, and empirical sociology inductive methods.

Tönnies classifies social entities as: 1) social relations, 2) social „Samtschaften“ (formally unorganized large groups of actors with common, formative characteristics groups), and 3) social corporations. Social relations are based on a psychological connection, while the natural relationship between people is based on biological kinship. The attitude of other people is important for social relations, not just the participants. A relations between more than two people is considered a "social circle" and it is a link between a social relations and  social Samtschaften. Samtschaften (unorganized groups) are voluntary social groups formed on the basis of a psychic or natural connection. The people rely on natural and psychological ties, while a political party is based only on psychological ties. Corporations are organizations that have their own bodies, officials, and their own acts. The corporation, on the outside, acts as if it has its own will. All three types of social entities can have both organic (natural) and rational will, and the proportional share of each of them makes them closer to the ideal type of society or the ideal type of community.

Social norms are rules (commandments and inhibitions), which have general validity, and they are used to regulate the behavior of all individuals. Norms can be autonomous or heteronomous, depending on whether they are consciously and voluntarily accepted (autonomous), or imposed from outside (heteronomous). Norms within the community are formed based on general consent, habits (customs), and religion. Norms within society arise from conventions, legislation, and public opinion. There are three main types of norms: 1) order (created based on general consent or convention); 2) law - enforced by courts, and may be based on customs or legislation; 3) morality - a set of norms that act as if they are applied by an imaginary judge (some higher power or conscience) and derive from religion or public opinion. Law, which arises through a truly democratic process, must be based on public opinion.

                                         Georg Simmel  

German philosopher and sociologist Georg Simmel was also of the founders of formal sociology. He believed that the subject of "pure sociology" is the forms of interaction that constitute the essence of society and social life. To understand Simel's sociology, it is first necessary to understand his basic philosophical positions. He believes that society could not have arisen from the belief that it is useful, because only historical experience could provide that knowledge. The conditions of society are a priori, so only philosophy can reveal them. The unity of society is realized directly by the social elements themselves, the subjects, who are aware and realize the synthesis, and who enter into mutual action. Society consists of a large number of complex elements, that is, personalities, and these personalities are different and unrepeatable, so sociology cannot create general laws, such as those in the natural sciences.

We understand other people as objects of our performances, creating them to some extent, using different categories. These categories represent the basis of sociological knowledge. There are three such categories: 1) abstraction of individual characteristics of persons in order to classify them into different general and a priori categories. Such categories are classes, races, professions, and the like. 2) Reserve of personality - the personal psychic life of an individual that cannot be reported from any general category, and that area is a subject of psychology and history. The two sides of the individual, social and personal, influence each other, the personality is a product of society, while, on the other hand, the personality determines the reaction of the individual to social influences. The end product of this relationship is the achievement of personality unity. 3) The third category enables the unification of the first two. Individuals have different roles and functions in society, so it is crucial for the normal functioning of society that individuals internalize awareness of the necessity of the roles they perform.

Simmel believes that sociology does not have a specific subject of research, which would be different from the subject of other social sciences, but that it represents a new method of researching these phenomena. Sociology should study pure social forms, hence, he called his approach „pure sociology“. The same forms can be filled with different content (goals and purposes), just as the same content can be found in different forms. Sociology should systematize these pure social forms, it should explain their psychological basis and show the historical development of these forms.

Simmel views society as an area of ​​psychological interaction between individuals and groups. In that sense, society, in essence, represents a process of association, where not every psychological interaction is at the same time an association. For the association to form, over time, from simple interaction, there must be unity around common values ​​and common goals. There are various forms by which unity is achieved around values ​​and goals: law achieves external goals by external means; morality achieves internal goals by internal means; honor achieves external goals by internal means. The law regulates the narrowest part of common values, while morality is the most comprehensive.

Simmel systematized and described in detail many social forms: social gatherings, relations of superiority and subordination, relations of cooperation and conflict, secret associations and secrecy, the spatial organization of society, and various similar forms. Social gatherings that are focused on entertainment are manifestations of social drive and have no specific purpose or goal. Such gatherings are regulated by quasi-ethical rules - individuals should not bring the most intimate aspects of their personality into this process and should behave tactfully.

The relations of superiority and subordination are based on force or authority, but they can never be absolute. Supremacy can be the product of the domination of one individual, one group, or some objective force (principle). Simmel emphasizes subordination to principle instead of man because such subordination is more objective, that is, it better expresses the interests of the whole society. In the beginning, the principles are imposed on the individual as an obligation, and only later, and gradually, the individual "internalizes" these rules as part of his personality. A similar process occurs when an individual or a group rules, because they first rule in their own interest, and later they themselves submit to objective principles, and then they rule in the interest of the whole society. Bureaucracy is a special form of expression of the objective principle in the relations of subordination because the formal standards of expertise necessary for a person to come to a position of authority or power are introduced. According to Simmel, the relations of superiority and subordination will never cease to be a part of social life.

                                   Leopold von Wiese

German sociologist and economist Leopold von Wiese also worked within the framework of formal sociology. His most significant work is Systematic Sociology (1933, in German 2 vols. 1924, 1929). Wiese believed that sociology should use the methods of natural sciences, therefore, to be an empirical and exact science, free from philosophical speculations and value-normative judgment. Sociology has a clearly defined and limited subject and uses the knowledge of other sciences to formulate its own abstraction of social life. The subject of sociology is interpersonal relations, especially the processes of association, dissociation, and processes that combine these two tendencies. Sociology is not interested in the purpose of the association, but only in the direction and rhythm of these processes. Factors that affect both processes (association and dissociation) are: emotional instincts and impulses, interests, and objective factors. The association contains its sub-processes: advance, adjustment, and amalgamation. The sub-processes of dissociation are: competition, contravention (rule-breaking), and conflict.

Another type of process that Wiese considers is “circumscribed action patterns” which can be associative (integration) and dissociative (differentiation). At the same time, these processes take place at the level of the entire society, but they do not function in opposition but in a complementary way. With the growth of society comes the growth of structures, which leads to the differentiation of that structure in the form of stratification, which is characterized by relations of domination and subordination. On the other hand, circumscribed action patterns lead to the neuropsychological integration of members. Socialization leads people to adopt, more or less, similar patterns of what is considered necessary, desirable, or justified. In addition to these two processes, another pair of dichotomous processes are "constructive" and "destructive" processes. Destructive processes include: exploitation, favoritism, ossification, radicalization, commercialization, and perversion. Constructive processes are: institutionalization, professionalization, and liberation (removing hindering restrictions).

A special segment of Wiese's sociology is his teaching on "plurality patterns" (gebilde). Plurality patterns are relatively permanent social structures that regulate interpersonal relationships. The plurality patterns differ in relative duration and degree of abstraction. The three main types of plurality patterns are: crowds, groups, and abstract collectivities. Crowds can be concrete, and in that sense, they represent visible and time-limited aggregations without leadership; and abstract, when they have no form and no time limit (one example is "public"). The groups are characterized by homogeneity, solidarity, and relatively long duration. Abstract collectivities are defined through their organizational structure and their partial independence from the specific individuals that are in them. The state and the church are typical examples of abstract collectivities.

                                            Max Weber

German sociologist Max Weber used different sociological and philosophical approaches in his studies but the influence of formal sociology on his work is most evident in his analysis of types of social action and types of legitimate authority.

Weber applies the ideal type method to classify the types of human social action. The basic types of social action are: 1) goal rational, 2) value rational, 3) affective, and 4) traditional. Goal rational social action is aimed at choosing the most efficient means to achieve the set goals, but other possible goals are taken into account, as well as the resources that should be used to achieve the goal. Value rational social action is aimed at achieving a goal, which is important in itself, regardless of the chances of success and resources spent because it is believed in the absolute value of that goal. Affective social action is directed by passions and emotions, so the meaning of social action is in itself, and not in achieving a specific goal. Traditional social action is completely shaped by the consistent following of established social rules, regardless of the final effect of that social action.

There are only three legitimate forms of authority: legal-rational, traditional, and charismatic. The difference between these three types of authority is in how authority is justified, but also according to how the administrative apparatus of society is organized. Legal-rational authority is historically a product of Western culture. It is characterized by the application of impersonal laws through official state bodies. The administrative apparatus is hierarchically and bureaucratically organized. All persons are subject to the same laws, including those performing the most important functions. In addition, there is a separation of official duty from the private life of those in administrative positions, as well as the separation of public property from personal property. Apart from the level of the modern state, the rational authority also appears in several different types of organizations and institutions.

Traditional power rests on the sanctity of long-established norms and institutions, while, at the same time, there is a constant distrust in any type of change. The right to exercise power is not strictly separated from the person in power, and there is no clear distinction between private and public property. There are two main forms of traditional power: patrimonial, in which all subjects are completely dependent on the ruler and all those who occupy lower positions remain on them only while enjoying his favor; and feudal, in which the highest classes have their protected status and they form the administrative apparatus. The feudal nobility swears allegiance to the ruler but is freed from his arbitrariness.

The third form of authority is a charismatic authority and this type is transitional because it occurs in periods of crisis and sudden social changes. Charismatic authority does not respect any restrictions and is always radical. The main examples of charismatic leaders are a prophet, a hero, and a demagogue. All who are below the charismatic leader owe their position only to their loyalty to the leader, while people submit to the leader only as long as he possesses charisma. This form of authority is more a relationship of power than authority. Charismatic power is very quickly transformed into a traditional, legal-rational, class form, or charisma itself is transformed.

                  Other Representatives of Formal Sociology

German sociologist Alfred Vierkandt sees formal sociology as a transition from the sociology of facts to the sociology of ideas, and those ideas, man's innate types of sociability, according to him, should be the subject of sociology. Formal sociology also influenced American sociologists Albion W. Small and Edward Ross. The concept of "interest" has a very important place in Small's theory. He defines interests as: “the simplest modes of motion which we can trace in the conduct of human beings”. Interests are instilled in every individual. Small divided human interests into six groups: 1) the health interest (consisting of the interests of nutrition, sex, and work), 2) the wealth interest, 3) the interest of socializing, 4) the interest of cognition, 5) the aesthetic interest, 6) the interest moral upliftment. Within one person, but also in society, there is a constant struggle between these different interests. All human activities can be explained through one or a combination of several interests. Individuals sometimes have common and sometimes conflicting interests. In order to realize their interests, individuals unite in groups. Since its inception, the state has alleviated the conflicts of opposing groups by establishing the rules of the struggle for the realization of interests. The state also leads to the establishment of cooperation between citizens and an increase in the importance of higher types of interests. Small saw sociology as a science that deals with the study of the group basis of social life. Social groups act as the core of organized interests and thus form the basic units of the social process. The function of the social process is the realization of vital human interests.

Authors: Simmel Georg; Small Woodbury Albion; Tönnies Ferdinand; Wiese Leopold von; Vierkandt Alfred. Ross Edward.                              

Books:

Simmel. Sociology: Inquiries into the Construction of Social Forms, 2 volume (2009, in German 1908);

Small, Albion. An Introduction to the Study of Society (1894);

     -     General Sociology (1905);

Tönnies, Ferdinand.Community and Sociology (1980, in German 1887);

Weber, Max. Economy and Society: A New Translation (2019, in German 1922a);

Wiese, Leopold von. Systematic Sociology (1977, in German 1924/1929).