Bio: (1841-1913) American sociologist. Lester Ward studied law and botany at Columbia University. He spent the first part of his professional career working as a paleobotanist at the Geological Survey. At that time, he began to study sociology, anthropology, and archeology on his own. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Ward published several sociological books and gained great prestige, becoming president of the International Sociological Institute (1900-1903) and the first president of the newly founded American Sociological Society, from 1906 to 1907. However, his first professional sociological appointment came only in 1906, when he became a professor of sociology at Brown University. His sociological teachings were greatly influenced by the theories of the evolution of Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.

Ward views sociology in the context of a wider range of both natural and social sciences. He accepts Comte's classification of sciences, which starts from the most exact and the least complex, to the least exact and the most complex: astronomy, physics, biology, and, finally, sociology. Every more complex and less exact science requires the possession of knowledge from simpler and more exact sciences. Ward sees sociology as a science that is above all other sciences and the last level in the genesis of science. Sociology is the youngest of the basic sciences and requires a wide range of knowledge in order to induce its conclusions. Sociology represents a broad order of natural phenomena, under which we can place other social sciences: economy, ethnology, history, and demography. Sociology is not an aggregation of all special social sciences, but their specific, organic synthesis. According to its subject, psychology lies in between, that is, it includes parts of both biology and sociology. The subject of sociology is human achievements, and the focus is on function, not structure.

                                   Pure and Applied Sociology

Sociology is divided into two parts. "Pure sociology" or "genesis" is theoretical and seeks to determine the principles of society and the origin and development of its structure and function. The second part is "applied sociology" or "telesis" and it is practical and is aimed at applying the knowledge of pure sociology to improve society, that is, to accelerate natural processes, but in the right direction. The goal of applied sociology (telesis) is to master the dynamic forces of nature and society and adjust the means to achieve the goal - the improvement of society.

Ward introduced several terms and concepts into sociology, some of which he took from biology. The natural or genetic development of a society has the form of "sympodic" development, therefore, society develops to a certain level, when the development of secondary branches or "sympods" begins. When the branch develops enough, then new branches grow on it. This process of branching represents a sympodic development. "Creative synthesis" refers to the emergence of a new phenomenon by combining and synthesizing previously existing parts. "Synergy" is a consequence of the natural spontaneous development of society and represents a systematic and organic unification of opposing natural forces. The "law of economics" refers to the tendency of natural forces to follow the path of least resistance, and is one of the basic laws of social mechanics.

Ward divided sociology into social dynamics and social statics. Social statics studies the formation of social order and the construction of social structures. The formation of a social order depends more on the formation of structures than on the struggle for survival. Only the best structures survive, that is, those that have managed to achieve the principle of "synergy" of opposing forces of nature. Social progress and changes in social structure are studied by social dynamics. Social dynamics is governed by three principles: 1) difference of potential - crossing of cultures by assimilation or amalgamation, 2) innovation - is a product of psychic creativity and is analogous to a mutation in the organic world, 3) conation - application of social energy (social effort) to achieve a goal (satisfaction of desire, preservation of life and change of environment). Social forces can take three different forms: ontogenetic (preservation), phylogenetic (reproduction), and sociogenetic (spirituality).

The love of freedom, which for Ward represents the ability to act in accordance with one's own desires, is instinctive and innate to the whole human race. However, absolute freedom is not good because, in that situation, the autocracy of individuals occurs. In order to limit the absolute freedom of the people, society builds the state and government institutions. In this way, the state prevents the anti-social actions of individuals. In that sense, the origin of the state is both genetic and "physical", that is, the state is a consequence of the actions of both genesis and telesis. The goal of the state is to ensure the well-being of society and enable the unhindered development of human intellectual powers, which contribute to the development of industry, art, literature, and science. Political struggles within the state, as well as those between the parties, lead to the interaction of opposing forces, and these forces intersect in such a way as to create political and social structures.

                              Types of Political Organization

Ward believed that society has gone through four stages in its evolution. In the first stage, people live alone in a state of "autarchy", and enter into relationships only to continue the species. In the second stage, people live in a state of "anarchy" and "constrained aggregate", they create social communities, but there is no form of political power, so there is unlimited freedom and unrestraint. The third stage is "politarchic" or "national" and then a rough form of government emerges. Wars between such societies lead to the enlargement of society and thus create the basis for the emergence of the fourth stage - the state. The state is founded by ambitious and cunning individuals who want to secure power for themselves. They seize power because they conceal their true intentions by pretending that they are working in the interests of the weak and exploited. Although the origins of power are unfair and oppressive, the state and society have the opportunity to build a better government that works in the interest of all. The final stage that will be realized in the future is "cosmopolitan" or "pantarchic" and then all societies will be integrated into one world state.

Ward classifies different forms of government and divides them into "autocracy", "aristocracy" and "democracy". Democracy has three forms: 1) "physiocracy" - a liberal-individualistic form of government, 2) "plutocracy" - corrupt and selfish degeneration of physiocracy, 3) "sociocracy" - an ideal democracy in which exploitation is abolished and enlightenment is enabled. Ward also singles out four functions that the state can perform: restraint (illegal function that enables exploitation by the ruling class), protection (policing function of maintaining order and peace), accommodation (representing the interests of individuals), and amelioration of society. The improvement of society will be achieved only when the legislators acquire basic sociological knowledge (especially about telesis) so that they can apply that knowledge to the achievement of social progress.

Main works

Dynamic Sociology (1883);

Neo-Darwinism and Neo-Lamarckism (1891);

The Psychic Factors of Civilization (1893); 

Contributions to Social Philosophy (1895-1897);

Outlines of Sociology (1898); 

Pure Sociology (1903);

Applied Sociology: A Treatise on the Conscious Improvement of Society by Society (1906); 

Glimpses of the Cosmos, 6 vols. (1913-1918).