What is Secularization?

The concept of the secular originates from Christian history and refers to what is non-sacred or outside the authority of the Church. Secularization describes the process through which human knowledge and activities increasingly come to be guided by scientific and rational explanations rather than religious beliefs. This development was described by Max Weber as the “disenchantment of the world,” reflecting the growing influence of rationalization in modern society.

The separation of the sacred and secular spheres emerged in Europe during the seventeenth century. Before this period, religion and political authority were often closely connected, both in Europe and in many non-Western societies. Secularism became a defining feature of modernity and developed into two related principles: state neutrality toward religions and, later, the protection of minority rights in multicultural societies.

Several factors contributed to the rise of secularism, including the emergence of the industrial bourgeoisie challenging traditional religious authority, the exhaustion caused by religious wars in Europe, and scientific advances that questioned established religious explanations. By the late twentieth century, scholars increasingly recognized that secularization was not a universal concept but a product of a specific European historical context. Secularism is an ideology that promotes and seeks to implement secular values in a society.

                Theoretical Approaches to Secularisation

Thomas Luckmann applied his phenomenological approach to the study of religion. In The Invisible Religion (1967a, in German 1963), he seeks to explore the anthropological roots of religion. Every religion was created by connecting the "symbolic world" with the world of everyday life, followed by the institutionalization of such a connection into a specific religion. Symbolic worlds serve to connect everyday life with super-empirical reality. In the past, religion was a force that contributed to the creation of a symbolic order that explained reality to people; allowed them to feel about themselves, and explained the meaning of life. In modern societies, the need for religion to create value systems and give them legitimacy has been lost. Religion becomes a matter of private life and personal choice, and a way of satisfying personal needs. Instead of creating a complete, over-experiential system of values ​​and knowledge, in the modern age religion serves self-realization, self-expression, and realization of personal freedoms in individuals.

In Religion in a Secular Society (1966), Bryan Wilson defines the process of secularization as "the fact that religion—seen as a way of thinking, as the performance of particular practices, and as the institutionalization and organization of these patterns of thought and actions— has lost influence" (Wilson, 1966). This process of secularization happens, at the same time, on three levels - societal, individual, and institutional. Secularization leads to more and more people looking at the world around them in rational and empirical categories. In that sense, Wilson believes that a rational approach to life and the world is an essential enemy of religion.

He singles out three factors that led to increased rationalization and declining influence of religion: 1) ascetic Protestantism that promoted rational and pragmatic ethics, 2) rational organization of society, state, and organization (this process Wilson calls societalization), 3) development of social and natural science, 4) the rise of rational ideologies, 5) the development of technology and industry, 6) the rise of cities and their importance. Wilson views religion, above all, as a social phenomenon, and therefore, even when personal religiosity survives to a significant extent, the process of secularization is not stopped because the importance of the social aspects of religion are declining. He states that the statistical data on the reduction of church attendance is proof of the process of secularization of society. Wilson believes that in the United States, where church attendance is still high, secularization has also taken hold because in this country, going to church is more a reflection of the commitment to American values ​​and the local community than a purely religious act.

In Religion and Regime: A Sociological Account of the Reformation (1968), Guy E. Swanson suggests that as societies become more secular, organized religious institutions lose influence over defining ultimate values. At the same time, institutions that were once considered secular increasingly take on roles that carry moral or quasi-sacred significance within the social order.

Peter Berger’s theory of secularization, depicted in The Social Reality of Religion (1973), emphasizes the importance of factors internal to Christianity in explaining the decline of religion in modern Western societies. While acknowledging the role of external social and economic forces such as industrialisation, urbanisation, and modernisation, Berger argues that these forces promote tendencies already embedded within the Christian tradition rather than creating secularisation independently. In this sense, Christianity can be seen as contributing to its own decline. According to Berger, the roots of secularisation can be traced back to ancient Judaism. Judaism rejected magic, mysticism, and supernatural practices while promoting ethical monotheism and rationality. Christianity inherited these characteristics, although the early Church partially reintroduced elements of mystery, ritual, and sacramental practices. Nevertheless, the rationalising tendencies remained present within the tradition and continued to develop over time.

Berger draws heavily on the ideas of Max Weber, particularly the concept of the “disenchantment of the world.” Weber argued that increasing rationality gradually removes magical and supernatural explanations from social life. Berger maintains that Christianity, especially through its ethical and transformative orientation, encouraged this process. Although Catholicism contained these tendencies for centuries, the Protestant Reformation released them more fully. Protestantism reduced the importance of rituals, sacraments, miracles, and sacred intermediaries, creating a more direct relationship between individuals and a transcendent God. Berger argues that Protestantism, particularly Calvinism, represented the most rational form of religion. By sharply separating the sacred from the secular world, Protestantism reduced the presence of the sacred in everyday life. As a result, the connection between God and society became increasingly fragile. Once the sacred and secular spheres were separated, it became easier for the secular sphere to develop independently. Thus, the Reformation, despite being a major religious revival, unintentionally laid the foundations for secularisation.

Another important factor in Berger’s analysis is the organizational structure of Christianity. Unlike many religions, Christianity developed a church institution that specialized in religious functions. This specialization allowed other areas of social life—such as politics, economics, science, and education—to become increasingly autonomous and less subject to religious authority. As these spheres developed their own forms of knowledge and rationality, the Church gradually lost its monopoly over interpreting the world and guiding everyday life. Berger also highlights the significance of religious pluralism. The Protestant Reformation led to denominational diversity and competition among religious groups. In a religious “marketplace,” individuals are exposed to multiple competing interpretations of reality. This competition tends to weaken the authority of any single religious worldview and encourages people to view religious beliefs as matters of personal choice rather than unquestionable truths. Once people can choose among religions, they can also choose no religion at all.

David Martin, in A General Theory of Secularization (1978), states that the process of secularization in some countries is influenced by many factors: ethnic identity, theological teachings, historical circumstances, political organization, class or class system, etc. Martin singles out three factors that are most important for the role that religion plays in different countries: 1) the level of religious pluralism, 2) the political system and the relationship between state and church, and 3) the influence of religion in creating national, regional, or ethnic identity. However, he singles out religious pluralism as the most important factor, that is, whether or not there is a religious monopoly.

If there is religious pluralism, then several new factors become important: the number and geographical distribution of religious minorities; the relationship between religious groups and dominant elites, as well as the very nature of religious teachings of different religions.

Martin singles out several typical situations regarding pluralism in European countries and the USA: 1) complete monopoly of the Roman Catholic Church, 2) dominant Protestant church, but there is also a Roman Catholic minority, 3) there is a state church but there are many other churches, 4) complete pluralism without dominant churches (the USA is the best example), 5) states in which one Protestant or Orthodox church is dominant. Martin believes that Catholic states are, in most cases, less secular than those dominated by Protestantism. He believes that in countries such as the United States, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, religion has a greater role because it helps preserve the ethnic identities of different communities. All these numerous factors influenced the way the process of secularization played out in different countries. Martin believes that secularization is mainly a European phenomenon, connected with the struggle between churches and secular forces in European history.

In his book The Decline of the Sacred in the Industrial Society (1979), Sabino Acquaviva introduced the theoretical concept of the „eclipse of the sacred”. He defined the sacred as an experience that almost all people have when a person feels that what is "real" is completely different from natural reality. The experience of the sacred exists as a lived experience for each individual psychological reality. In every religion, the manifestation of the sacred (hierophany) is different, but the experience of the sacred is always the central point of any religion and any individual religiosity. The experience of the sacred is thus the basis of all religious practices and beliefs. Acquaviva believes that the presence of the sacred in society, but also in the individual psychic life, is measurable and that it is possible to quantify the degree of the presence of the sacred. When there is a decline of the sacred, that is, there is an "eclipse of the sacred", and then there is a progressive withdrawal of all forms of manifestation of the sacred in individual and social experience. He determined, based on data from North and South America and Europe, that in the entire Christian world, there is a decline in both church religiosity and all kinds of religious beliefs.

William Bainbridge and Rodney Stark, in The Future of Religion (1985), applied the approach of rational choice to the sociology of religion. Religion is, above all, about supernatural things and beliefs. They believed that the process of secularization was twofold, while the importance of those religious organizations that exhibited greater secularism was declining, cults and sects were strengthening at the same time, and many sects were growing into denominations. In the same book, these two authors also studied the process of secularization and concluded that secularization is not a novelty, but part of the regular cycle of religious development. They believed that the process of secularization was twofold.  While the importance of religious organizations that exhibited greater secularism was declining, on the other hand, cults and sects were strengthening, and many sects were growing into denominations. In addition, the authors claim that many people who consider themselves atheists often believe in some mystical and supernatural things.

In After Heaven: Spirituality in America Since the 1950s (1998), Robert Wuthnow points to changes in the practices of spiritual and religious "consumption" in America. In the 1950s, "dwelling spirituality" prevailed, when individuals sought to achieve spirituality within official religious organizations. The following decades saw the development of the "seeking spirituality" when individuals began to meet spiritual needs outside established religious organizations. In the 1980s, there was a development of " practice-oriented spirituality" where individuals, who are insecure and dissatisfied with belonging to a particular religious community, tend to associate everyday life with a sense of connection to the spirit world.

References:

Acquaviva. The Decline of Sacred in Industrial Society (1979, in Italian 1961);

Asad, Talal. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (2003);

Barker, Eileen, James A. Beckford, and Karel Dobbelaere. (eds.). Secularization, Rationalism, and Sectarianism (1993);

Bainbridge. The Future of Religion (1985);

     -     Dynamic Secularization (2017);

Beckford. Religion and Advanced Industrial Society (1989);

     -     The Changing Face of Religion (1989);

     -     Social Theory and Religion (2003);  

Bellah. Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World (1970);

     -     The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial (1975);

     -     The New Religious Consciousness (1976);

     -     Varieties of Civil Religion (1980);

     -     Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (1985);

Berger. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (1967);

Bruce, Steve. ‘‘The Truth about Religion in Britain’’, in Journal of the Scientific Study of Religion (1995);

Chaves, Mark. ‘‘Denominations as Dual Structures: An Organizational Analysis’’, in Sociology of Religion (1993);

Demerath, N. J. ‘‘Excepting Exceptionalism: American Religion in Comparative Relief’’, in The Annals (1998a);

     -     ‘‘Secularization Disproved or Displaced’’, in Rudy Laermans, Bryan Wilson, and Jaak Billiet,

(eds.). Secularization and Social Integration (1998b);

Demerath, III, N. J. & Williams, R. H. “Secularization in a Community Context: Tensions of

Religion and Politics in a New England City”, in Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (1992);

Davie, G. Europe, the Exceptional Case: Parameters of Faith in the Modern World (2002);

     -     ‘‘Secularization Theories and Sociological Paradigms’’, in Sociological Analysis (1985);

     -     Crossing the Gods: Religion, Violence, Politics and the State across the World (2000);

Dobbelaere, Karel. ‘‘Secularization: A Multi-Dimensional Concept’’, in Current Sociology (1981);

Dobbelaere, K., Tomasi, L., & Voye´, L. “Religious Syncretism”, in Piedmont, R. L. & Moberg,

D. O. (eds.). Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion (2003);

Douglas, Mary. ‘‘The Effects of Modernization on Religious Change’’, in Douglas and Tipton and Steven

M. Tipton. (eds.). Religion in America: Spirituality in a Secular Age (1982);

Durkheim, Émile. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912);

Erikson, Kai. Wayward Puritans (1966);

Fenn, Richard. Toward a Theory of Secularization (1979);

Finke, Roger, and Rodney Stark. The Churching of America, 1776–1990: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy (1992);

Haddaway, C. Kirk, Penny Long Marler, and Mark Chaves. ‘‘What the Polls Don’t Show: A Closer

Look at U.S. Church Attendance’’, in American Sociological Review (1993);

Habermas. The Theory of Communicative Action (1984, in German 1981);

     -     The Dialectic of Secularization (2007, in German 2005a);

Hammond, P. E. (ed.). The Sacred in a Secular Age (1985);

Iannaccone, Laurence R. ‘‘Why Strict Churches Are Strong’’, in American Journal of Sociology (1994);

Inglehart. Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (2004);

     -     Religion's Sudden Decline: What's Causing it, and What Comes Next? (2021);

Luckmann. The Invisible Religion (1967);

Luckmann, T. “Shrinking Transcendence, Expanding Religion”, in Sociological Analysis (1990);

Luhmann. Funktion der Religion (1977);

Luhmann, Niklas. The Differentiation of Society (1982);

Madan, T. N. Modern Myths, Locked Minds (1998);

Martin. The Religious and the Secular (1969);

     -     A General Theory of Secularization (1978);

McLoughlin, W. G. Revivals, Awakenings, and Religious Change (1978);

Nandy, Ashish. ‘‘The Politics of Secularism and the Recovery of Religious Tolerance’’, in Veena Das. (ed.).

Mirrors of Violence (1990);

Pace, E. “The Helmet and the Turban: Secularization in Islam”, in Laermans, R., Wilson, B.,

& Billiet, J. (eds.). Secularization and Social Integration (1998);

Parsons, T. “Christianity and Modern Industrial Society”, in Tiryakian, E. A. (ed.). Sociological Theory: Values and Sociocultural Change (1967);

     -     The Evolution of Societies (1977);

Redfield, Robert. The Primitive World and Its Transformations (1953);

Robertson. The Sociological Interpretation of Religion (1970); 

     -     Church-State Relations: Tensions and Transitions (1987);

Roof, Wade Clark, and William McKinney. American Mainline Religion (1987);

Shiner, L. “The Concept of Secularization in Empirical Research”, in Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (1967);

Stark. The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult formation (1985);

     -     A Theory of Religion (1987);

     -     , and William H. Bainbridge, Jr. The Future of Religion (1985);

     -     , and Laurence R. Iannaccone. ‘‘A Supply-Side Interpretation of the ‘Secularization’ of Europe’’, in

Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (1994);

Taylor, Charles. “Modes of Secularism”, in Bhargava, Rajeev (ed.). Secularism and Its Critics (1998);

Tschannen, Oliver. ‘‘The Secularization Paradigm: A Systematization’’, in Journal of the Scientific Study of

Religion (1991);

Turner B. Religion and Social Theory: A Materialistic Perspective (1983);

Turner, James. Without God, Without Creed (1985);

Wallis, R. The Elementary Forms of the New Religious Life (1984);

Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905);

Wilson, B. R. Contemporary Transformations of Religion (1976);

Wilson, B. R. Religion in Sociological Perspective (1982);

     -     Religion in Secular Society (1966);

     -     Contemporary Transformations of Religion (1976); 

Wuthnow. The Restructuring of American Religion (1988);

Young, L. A. (ed.) Rational Choice Theory and Religion: Summary and Assessment (1997).