Prostitution refers to the exchange of sex, from one side, for monetary or other economic equivalent, by the other side. Throughout history and across societies, the ideological, ethical, legal, and practical setting for prostitution differs significantly, although it has probably been, in some form, always present. In all settings where it occurs or has occurred, prostitution was, in essence, a socially defined interaction that simultaneously involves sexual and economic relations. Most attention is placed, both by the general public and by researchers and lawmakers, and most frequent, historically and today, is a form of prostitution where women sell sex to men. Other forms of prostitution, in order how frequent they are, are men who sell sex to men, men who sell sex to women, trans people who sell sex to men, and women who sell sex to other women. It is important to note that a large part of worldwide prostitution in the 20th and 21st centuries is forced on enslaved individuals (sex slaves), mostly women and children, who don’t have any economic benefit from being part of sex trafficking, and only endure sexual exploitation, imprisonment, and torture. This type of prostitution (sexual slavery) will get more attention in the entry on slavery in this encyclopedia, while this entry will focus on prostitution done by free individuals.

                 Ideological and Ethical Views on Prostitution

Traditional conservative views on prostitution are negative, as it is seen as an immoral activity that goes against religious and moral standards and has negative effects on family and family values. Although both men who buy and women who sell sex are seen as committing an immoral act by conservatives, more blame is bestowed on women engaging in prostitution.

A different view on prostitution, held by some conservatives, argues that prostitution was always present, and that it is, therefore, unavoidable, as a “necessary evil”; hence, it should be allowed. This position states that biologically innate sexual drive in men necessitates prostitution as an outlet for those impulses, as it protects other women from rape and other types of sexual violence. Kinglsy Davis, in his article “The Sociology of Prostitution” (1937), champions this approach to prostitution, and argues that prostitution allows ‘‘a small number of women to take care of the needs of a large number of men, it is the most convenient sexual outlet for an army, and for the legions of strangers, perverts, and physically repulsive in our midst’’.

Marxists view prostitution as an extension of capitalism's core tendency to turn human beings and their capacities and bodies into commodities. Also, it is deeply connected to women's economic vulnerability under capitalism, and dependence on men within the capitalist family structure, leading them to exchange sexual favors for material gain. Prostitution involves the capitalist appropriation of surplus value, where brothel owners or other capitalists profit from the sexual labor of female workers.

Friedrich Engels, in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884) argues that monogamous marriage and prostitution, although seemingly in opposition, are inextricably linked and caused by the same socio-economic circumstances that exist in patriarchal capitalism. 

Feminism is divided on the issue of prostitution; radical feminists view it strongly negatively, while liberal feminism ( also known as “feminist abolitionists”, “sex work feminists” and “sex positive feminists”) emphasizes female agency and advocates for decriminalization and labor rights for sex workers.

Radical feminists' view on prostitution, exemplified in Mary McIntosh’s essay “Who Needs Prostitutes? The Ideology of Male Sexual Needs” (1978) and Kate Millett’s The Prostitution Papers (1971), is that it is a form of systemic exploitation rooted in patriarchal power structures. Their critique relates to the broader social meaning and consequences of commodifying women's bodies. Prostitution is seen as a form of violence against women, regardless of consent, equivalent to the act of rape. It reflects and reinforces male dominance. Selling sex is viewed as reducing women to objects for male pleasure, perpetuating objectification, harmful stereotypes, and undermining gender equality. Radical feminists argue that most women enter prostitution due to economic coercion, trauma, or lack of alternatives—not because they had genuine free choice or consent. They advocate for the abolition of prostitution, not by criminalizing sex workers, but by targeting demand (i.e., penalizing buyers) and offering exit strategies for those in the trade. Legalizing or normalizing prostitution is seen as legitimizing exploitation and making it harder to challenge the underlying inequalities.

Emma Goldman, a feminist anarchist, believed that in the existing patriarchal capitalist system, women were treated only as sexual objects, a means of giving birth and raising children, and a source of cheap labor. She believed that prostitution was a special form of exploitation of women, but also that all women were forced to sell their bodies.

                                      Male Sex Workers

Male sex work has historically not been in the focus of ideological debates and scientific research, and only came into focus with the spread of  HIV/AIDS and social paranoia related to it in the 1980s.

                            Intersectionality of Prostitution   

In most cases, prostitution is not only a question of individual choice, but should be studied in the context of the intersectionality of gender, ethnicity, citizenship status (undocumented migrants), class, and race. Also, wider processes should be taken into account, such as economic cycles, colonialism, imperialism, wars, and migration. Wars and their consequences of economic destitution, military occupation, and migration of refugees very significantly contribute to the spread of prostitution in areas affected by wars.  

                             Victimization of Prostitutes

Female prostitutes, especially those who work on the street or are dependent on the pimps, are extremely vulnerable to victimization and are in constant threat of being robbed, raped, assaulted by customers, pimps, police, or criminals. Prostitutes are also much more likely to be victims of serial killers. In countries or states where prostitution is illegal, prostitutes are more frequently being fined or jailed than their customers. Prostitutes are also more likely to suffer from addictions to drugs or alcohol or to be infected by sexually transmitted diseases. Research on male prostitution shows that they are less likely than female prostitutes to: have been abused as children, to experience violence or to be forced into prostitution, to suffer harassment or arrest by the police. 

                                            Sex Tourism

Sex tourism refers to the practice of individuals traveling to a foreign country to engage in prostitution in the destination country. Countries that are notorious for sex tourism, such as Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Netherlands, and the Philippines, earn a significant share (legal and illegal) of GDP from prostitution, while the percentage of the population that engages in prostitution is much higher than in other countries. Reasons for sex tourism, from the perspective of the consumers, are various: low prices, desire to have sex with a specific racial or ethnic group, anonymity, etc. The most horrible aspect of sex tourism is that a significant number of trafficked victims are minors.

References:

Aggleton, P. (ed.). Men Who Sell Sex: International Perspectives on Male Prostitution and HIV/AIDS (1999);

Barry, K. The Prostitution of Sexuality (1995) ;

Brace, L. The Politics of Property: Labour, Freedom, and Belonging (2004);

Connell. Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics (1987);

Engels. The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (2010, in German 1884);

Davis K. “The Sociology of Prostitution”, in American Sociological Review (1937);

Goldman. What I Believe (1908);

     -     Anarchism and Other Essays (1910);

Kempadoo, K. & Doezema, J. (eds.). Global Sex Workers (1998);

Kulick, D. Travesti: Sex, Gender, and Culture Among Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes (1998);

Lever, Janet, and Deanne Dolnick. “Clients and Call Girls: Seeking Sex and Intimacy”, in Ronald Weitzer (ed.). Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry (2000);

Lim, Lin Lean. The Sex Sector: The Economic and Social Bases of Prostitution in Southeast Asia (1998);

Lombroso. Criminal Woman, the Prostitute, and the Normal Woman (2004);

Millett. The Prostitution Papers: A Candid Dialogue (1971);

Monto, Martin. “Female Prostitution, Customers, and Violence”, in Violence Against Women (2004);

O’Connell Davidson, J. Children in the Global Sex Trade (2005);

Plumridge, Libby, and Gillian Abel. “A Segmented Sex Industry in New Zealand: Sexual and Personal Safety of Female Sex Workers”, in Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health (2001);

Sanchez Taylor, J. “Dollars Are a Girl’s Best Friend? Female Tourists’ Sexual Behaviour in the Caribbean”, in Sociology (2001);

Vanwesenbeeck, Ine. “Another Decade of Social Scientific Work on Prostitution”, in Annual Review of Sex Research (2001);

Weitzer, Ronald. “Prostitution Control in America: Rethinking Public Policy”, in Crime, Law, and Social Change (1999);

Weitzer, Ronald. “New Directions in Research on Prostitution”, in Crime, Law, and Social Change (2005);

West, Donald. Male Prostitution (1993);

Weitzer, R. (ed.). Sex for Sale (2000);

Zalduondo, B. de & Bernard, J. “Meanings and Consequences of Sexual-Economic Exchange”, in Parker, R. & Gagnon, J. (eds.). Conceiving Sexuality (1995).