Bio: (1844-1922) French sociologist. Alfred Espinas belongs to a group of scientists whose ideas were influenced by the theory of biological evolution, while his teaching is most often called zoosociology. He believes that each person is a kind of society because it is composed of different cells that compete or cooperate with each other. Since we find social order in each individual organism, evolution follows a unique path from the first organisms to human society. Since society is analogous to the organism, solidarity in society corresponds to the cooperation of biological cells, and tradition corresponds to biological permanence. He believes that sciences are formed based on broader and simpler sciences, which logically precede them. Sociology is also shaped in that way and cannot be a complete science without biology. Espinas also studied the development of technology and the history of economic doctrines.

Main works

Des sociétés animales (1877);

Histoire des doctrines économiques (1891);

Les origines de la technologie (1897);

La philosophie sociale an XVIIIe siècle et la Revolution (1898);

Descartes et la morale: Etudes sur l'histoire de la philosophie de l'action (1925).